THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 


BOOKS  BY  SHELDON  CHENEY 

THE  NEW  MOVEMENT  IN  THE  THEATRE 
THE  ART  THEATRE 
THE  OPEN'AIR  THEATRE 


A   CORNER   OF   THE   ARENA   GOLDONI,   AT   FLORENCE,    ITALY. 


THE 
OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 


BY 
SHELDON  CHENEY 


NEW  YORK 

MITCHELL  KENNERLEY 

MCMXVIII 


COPYRIGHT    Ipi       BY 
MITCHELL  KENNERLEY 


PRINTED  IN  AMERICA 


PREFACE 

MY.  object  in  writing  this  volume  has  been 
three-fold:  first,  to  offer,  for  that  in- 
creasingly large  public  which  is  inter- 
ested in  every  significant  development  of  the  drama, 
a  comprehensive  view  of  the  open-air  theatre  move- 
ment with  relation  to  both  the  historical  background 
and  the  remarkable  current  revival;  second,  to  pro- 
vide the  architect  with  a  first-aid  compendium  of  in- 
formation about  old  and  modern  open-air  theatres, 
bringing  together  material  which,  if  it  has  existed  at 
all  in  print,  has  been  scattered  through  a  hundred 
books  and  magazine  articles ;  and  third,  to  give  those 
concerned  with  open-air  production  a  birdseye  view 
of  the  drama  of  the  open  in  all  ages  and  all  lands, 
and  by-comparison,  to  help  them  to  an  understand- 
ing of  the  peculiar  characteristics  and  particular 
problems  of  production  out-of-doors. 

The  scope  of  the  volume  is  limited.  No  attempt 
is  made  to  treat  of  theatres  of  the  half-enclosed 
type,  which  are  in  effect  the  ordinary  architectural 
theatre  with  the  auditorium  roof  lifted.  There  is 
no  intention,  moreover,  to  put  forth  the  volume  as 

v 


PREFACE 

an  exhaustive  treatise.  Doubtless  there  are  many 
open-air  theatres  that  have  not  come  to  the  writer's 
notice,  and  certain  others  offer  so  little  of  interest 
that  descriptions  would  merely  be  tedious.  But  it 
is  thought  that  every  playhouse  which  is  really  im- 
portant, either  for  its  productions  or  for  its  unique 
structural  form,  has  been  described.  I  have  worked 
with  full  realization  that  this  first  book  on  the  sub- 
ject must  be  hardly  more  than  a  sketch.  It  is  of- 
fered as  a  preliminary  essay  in  a  field  which  I  hope 
will  attract  new  students,  and  which  doubtless  will 
find  its  exhaustive  historian  in  due  time. 

If  I  continually  refer  to  the  artificialities  of  the 
indoor  stage,  it  is  not  because  I  disbelieve  in  the  in- 
door theatre.  Indeed,  my  faith  in  the  ultimate  re- 
generation of  that  over-commercialized  institution  is 
very  strong.  But  I  believe  that  there  has  been  much 
following  of  false  gods  among  the  so-called  "ar- 
tists" of  the  regular  playhouse;  and  in  the  open-air 
theatre  I  see  one  of  the  finest  correctives  for  its  over- 
sophistication  and  artificiality. 

So  many  people  have  given  generous  aid  in  the 
compilation  of  this  book,  that  it  is  impossible  to 
make  detailed  acknowledgment.  To  the  many  who 
have  provided  information  about  their  private  thea- 
tres, or  about  the  theatres  of  institutions  with  which 
they  are  affiliated,  I  extend  again  my  cordial  thanks. 

vi 


PREFACE 

A  special  debt  is  owing  to  Professor  Thomas  H. 
Dickinson  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin,  not  only 
for  information  about  the  playhouse  at  Madison  but 
for  material  gleaned  from  his  admirable  essay  on 
open-air  theatres  in  The  Playbook  of  June,  1913. 
To  Mr.  Leroy  Truman  Goble  and  to  Mr.  Sam 
Hume  I  am  grateful  for  material  about  open-air  pro- 
duction in  Europe,  which  otherwise  would  have  es- 
caped me.  To  Miss  Mabel  Lincoln  Edwards  I  owe 
thanks  for  similar  aid  in  connection  with  certain 
American  theatres.  The  chapters  on  historic  thea- 
tres are  based  on  material  drawn  from  a  multitude 
of  sources ;  but  special  acknowledgment  must  be  made 
to  A.  E.  Haigh's  exhaustive  volume,  The  Attic  The- 
atre. For  information  about  the  Italian  villa  thea- 
tres I  am  especially  indebted  to  Professor  Henry 
Vincent  Hubbard,  whose  descriptions  and  plans  in 
the  January,  1914,  number  of  Landscape  Architec- 
ture have  been  freely  drawn  upon.  For  photo- 
graphs of  the  Italian  theatres  special  thanks  are 
due  to  H.  Inigo  Triggs  and  to  Mrs.  Aubrey  Le- 
Blond;  and  for  pictures  of  the  classic  theatres,  to 
Professor  Allen  Marquand.  The  introductory 
chapter  was  published  in  part  in  Craftsman  Maga- 
zine, and  the  chapter  on  garden  theatres  originally 
appeared  in  Country  Life  in  America.  The  editors 
have  kindly  given  permission  to  reprint. 

vii 


PREFACE 

The  book  was  written  almost  entirely  during  the 
year  1915,  and  was  announced  for  publication  in  the 
following  year.  But  difficulties  in  the  way  of  ob- 
taining photographs,  and  other  delays,  have  pre- 
vented earlier  appearance.  I  have  taken  advantage 
of  this  circumstance  to  add  descriptions  of  several 
theatres  which  were  completed  after  the  main  por- 
tion of  the  text  had  been  written. 

S.  C. 


Vlll 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.    THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE  MOVEMENT 
II.    THE  OLD  GREEK  AND  ROMAN  THEATRES  13 

III.  THE  MODERN  GREEK  THEATRES  30 

IV.  THE  MEDIAEVAL  RELIGIOUS  THEATRE  AND  ITS 

SURVIVALS  51 

V.    THE  NATURE  THEATRE  64 

VI.    THE  GARDEN  THEATRE  87 

VII.    THE  DRAMA  OF  THE  OPEN  in 

APPENDIX 

I.    THE  PLANNING  AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF  OPEN- 
AIR  THEATRES  135 

II.    VlTRUVIUS  ON  THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  GREEK 
AND  ROMAN  THEATRES 

INDEX  185 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

1.  A  CORNER  or  THE  ARENA  GOLDONI        Frontispiece 

(By  COURTESY  OF  GORDON  CRAIG)  PAGE 

2.  THE  CRANBROOK  GREEK  THEATRE  6 

3.  THE  BOHEMIAN  GROVE  THEATRE  8 

(PHOTOGRAPH  BY  GABRIEL  MOULIN) 

4.  THE  GARDEN  THEATRE  AT  VILLA  GORI  10 

(FROM  H.  INIGO  TRIGGS*  The  Art  of  Garden 
Design  in  Italy) 

5.  THE  THEATRE  OF  DIONYSUS  AT  ATHENS  14 

(PHOTOGRAPH  BY  ALINARI) 

6.  A  RESTORATION  OF  THE  GREEK  THEATRE  AT 

EGESTA  18 

7.  THE  GREEK  THEATRE  AT  EPIDAURUS  20 


8.  RUINS  OF  THE  THEATRE  AT  SYRACUSE  22 

(PHOTOGRAPH  BY  ALINARI) 

9.  SKETCH  PLANS  OF  GREEK,  AND  ROMAN  THEA- 

TRES 23 

10.  RUINS  OF  THE  ROMAN  THEATRE  AT  TAORMINA 

(PHOTOGRAPH  BY  ALINARI)  24 

11.  a.  A  RESTORATION  OF  THE  ROMAN  THEATRE  AT 

ORANGE  26 

(BY  COURTESY  OF  RlCHARD  SlLVESTER) 

xi 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

b.  THE  ROMAN  THEATRE  AT  ORANGE,  PRESENT 

STATE 
(By  COURTESY  OF  Fogue) 

12.  THE  SMALLER  THEATRE  AT  POMPEII  28 

(PHOTOGRAPH  BY  ALINARI) 

13.  a.  THE  HEARST  GREEK  THEATRE  AT  BERKELEY      32 
b.  ARCHITECT'S  DRAWING  FOR  HEARST  GREEK 

THEATRE 

(BY  COURTESY  OF  JOHN  GALEN  HOWARD, 
ARCHITECT) 

14.  THE  GREEK  THEATRE  AT  POINT  LOMA  36 

(PHOTOGRAPHS    COPYRIGHT    BY    KATHERINE 
TINGLEY) 

15.  THE  CRANBROOK  GREEK  THEATRE  38 

16.  a.  THE  POMONA  GREEK  THEATRE  42 

(PHOTOGRAPH  BY  PIERCE  AND  WILLARD) 
b.  THE  BAKERSFIELD  GREEK  THEATRE 

(BY  COURTESY  OF  LEWIS   P.   HoBART,  AR- 
CHITECT) 

17.  PLAN  OF  THE  ARENA  GOLDONI  44 

(BY  COURTESY  OF  GORDON  CRAIG) 

18.  THE    ARENA    GOLDONI   AS    SEEN    FROM   THE 

STAGE  46 

(BY  COURTESY  OF  GORDON  CRAIG) 

19.  THE  GREEK  THEATRE  AT  BRADFIELD  48 

20.  THE    PASSION    PLAY    THEATRE    AT    VALEN- 

CIENNES 54 

(FROM  CHARLES  H.  CAFFIN'S  The  Apprecia- 
tion of  the  Drama) 

xii 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

21.  CONTEMPORARY  SKETCH  or  AN  ELIZABETHAN 

THEATRE  .  58 

(FROM  CHARLES  H.  CAFFIN'S  The  Apprecia- 
tion of  the  Drama) 

22.  THE   PASSION   PLAY  THEATRE   AT  OBER-AM- 

MERGAU  60 

23.  THE  HARZ  MOUNTAIN  THEATRE  66 

24.  THE  NATURE  THEATRE  AT  HERTENSTEIN  68 

25.  THE  KLAMPENBORG  WOODS  THEATRE  70 

26.  THE  VASSAR  COLLEGE  THEATRE  74 

(BY  COURTESY  OF  LORING  UNDERWOOD,  AR- 
CHITECT) 

27.  THE  DELL  THEATRE  76 

28.  THE  NATURE  THEATRE  AT  MACOMB  78 

(BY  COURTESY  OF  WALTER  P.  MORGAN) 

29.  THE  PETERBOROUGH  PAGEANT  THEATRE  80 

30.  a.  THE  BANKSIDE  THEATRE  84 

(BY    COURTESY   OF    PROFESSOR    FREDERICK 

H.  KOCH) 
b.  THE  MOUNT  TAMALPAIS  THEATRE 

(PHOTOGRAPH  BY  GABRIEL  MOULIN) 

31.  GARDEN  THEATRE  AT  MONTECITO  90 

(BY  COURTESY  OF  HENRY  E.  BoTHIN) 

32.  GARDEN  THEATRE  AT  VILLA  MARLIA  94 

(BY  COURTESY  OF   HENRY  VlNCENT  HUB- 
BARD) 

33.  a.  THE  WATER  THEATRE  AT  VERSAILLES  96 
b.  THE  AMPHITHEATRE  IN  THE  BOBOLI  GAR- 
DENS 

xiii 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FACE 

34.  THE  TREILLAGE  THEATRE  AT  MANNHEIM  98 

(PHOTOGRAPH  BY  B.  TILLMANN-MATTER) 

35.  a.  THE  BROOKSIDE  THEATRE  102 

(PHOTOGRAPH    BY    NEW    YORK    HERALD 
SERVICE) 
b.  THE  GARDEN  TERRACE  THEATRE 

(BY  COURTESY  OF  DR.  G.  H.  DURAND) 

36.  THEATRE  IN  THE  LAZIENSKI  GARDENS,  WAR- 

SAW 104 

37.  THE  ROSEMARY  THEATRE  106 

(BY  COURTESY  OF  ROLAND  R.  CoNKLIN) 

38.  GARDEN  THEATRE  AT  MONTECITO  no 

(BY  COURTESY  OF  MRS.  WlLLIAM  MlLLER 
GRAHAM) 

39.  A    PRODUCTION    IN    THE    BOHEMIAN    GROVE 

THEATRE  122 

(PHOTOGRAPH  BY  GABRIEL  MOULIN) 

40.  A  PRODUCTION  AT  THE   POINT  LOMA  GREEK 

THEATRE  128 

(PHOTOGRAPH    COPYRIGHT    BY     KATHERINE 
TINGLEY) 

41.  RUINS  OF  THE  THEATRE  AT  FIESOLE  138 

(PHOTOGRAPH  BY  ALINARI) 

42.  DIAGRAM  OF  RELATIONS  BETWEEN  AUDITORIUM 

AND  STAGE  140 

43.  PLAN  OF  THE  HEARST  GREEK  THEATRE  142 

(BY   COURTESY  OF  JOHN   GALEN   HOWARD, 
ARCHITECT) 

xiv 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

44.  PLAN  OF  THE  CRANBROOK  GREEK  THEATRE         144- 

(Bv  COURTESY  OF  Modern  Building) 

45.  PLAN  OF  THE  BUTTERICK  MEMORIAL  THEATRE     146 

(BY  COURTESY  OF  FRANK  A.  WAUGH,  ARCHI- 
TECT) 

46.  THE  THEATRE  AT  PRIENE  152 

(BY  COURTESY  OF  PROFESSOR  ALLEN  MAR- 
QUAND) 

47.  COMPARATIVE     PLANS     OF     ITALIAN    GARDEN 

THEATRES  156 

48.  CHAIRS  OF  HONOR  IN  THE  THEATRE  OF  DIONY- 

SUS 160 

(PHOTOGRAPH  BY  ENGLISH  PHOTO  COMPANY) 

49.  DESIGN  FOR  A  PAGEANT  STAGE  164 

(BY  COURTESY  OF  HERMANN  ROSSE) 

50.  PLAN  OF  THE  ROMAN  THEATRE  ACCORDING  TO 

VITRUVIUS  174 

(BY  COURTESY  OF  THE  HARVARD  UNIVERSITY 
PRESS) 

51.  PLAN  OF  THE  GREEK  THEATRE  ACCORDING  TO 

VITRUVIUS  180 

(BY  COURTESY  OF  THE  HARVARD  UNIVERSITY 
PRESS) 


XV 


THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 
CHAPTER  I 

THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE  MOVEMENT 

IN  the  whole  history  of  dramatic  art  there  is 
no  more  illuminating  truth  than  this:  always 
when  the  drama  has  been  simplest,  most 
genuine,  and  lit  up  most  brightly  by  the  joy  of  living, 
and  always  when  the  drama  has  been  closest  to 
the  life  of  the  people,  it  has  had  its  setting  in  the 
open.  The  two  great  periods  of  literary  drama 
came  at  times  when  men  naturally  took  their 
dramatic  productions  out-of-doors,  as  they  al- 
ways have  taken  their  games  there.  The  Greek 
masters  lived  and  died  before  the  indoor  theatre 
was  thought  of,  and  the  glories  of  the  age  of 
Shakespeare  in  England  came  when  the  drama  again 
had  left  the  roofed-in  places,  developing  and 
flowering  on  stages  open  to  the  sky.  In  these  days 
when  the  world  is  talking  vaguely  of  another  great 


2  THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

renaissance  of  the  art  of  the  theatre,  and  is  waiting 
expectantly  for  the  new  artists  who  will  express  their 
age  as  characteristically  as  the  Greeks  have  ex- 
pressed theirs  and  Shakespeare  his,  one  may  read 
a  new  meaning  into  the  recent  revival  of  interest 
in  the  al  fresco  drama.  For  not  since  the  theatre 
of  the  late  Elizabethan  decadence  was  roofed  over 
have  there  been  so  many  productions  in  the  open 
and  so  many  outdoor  theatres  as  there  are  to-day. 

For  the  average  theatregoer,  who  thinks  of  the 
outdoor  dramatic  production  as  an  extra-normal 
affair,  it  comes  as  a  surprise  to  find  that  the  open- 
air  theatre  has  existed  more  than  two  thousand 
years,  whereas  the  history  of  the  indoor  playhouse 
is  a  matter  of  a  mere  three  or  four  centuries.  In- 
deed, the  story  of  the  birth  of  dramatic  art,  and  of 
that  art's  growth  through  its  greatest  eras,  is  ex- 
clusively the  story  of  the  open-air  theatre. 

In  Greece  the  drama  was  born  in  the  dances  about 
an  altar,  during  the  festivals  in  honor  of  the  god 
Dionysus;  it  grew  on  the  platforms  erected  at  the 
side  of  the  "orchestra,"  or  dancing-circle,  at  first  in 
the  market-place  perhaps,  and  later  at  the  foot  of 
a  hillside  that  formed  a  natural  auditorium;  and 
finally  the  art  of  ^schylus  and  Sophocles  and 
Euripides  flowered  in  the  beautiful  architectural 
theatres  of  Athens,  at  first  of  wood,  and  then  de- 


THE  MOVEMENT  3 

veloping  into  stone  bowls,  immense  in  size  and  beau- 
tiful in  proportion  and  in  decoration.  The  Romans, 
stumbling  on  the  heels  of  the  Greeks  in  all  matters 
of  art,  solidified  the  classic  theatre  building,  gaining 
a  certain  sense  of  intimacy,  perhaps,  but  losing  some- 
thing of  the  open  beauty  and  natural  grace  of  the 
Greek  structures ;  and  they  took  the  first  step  toward 
the  indoor  playhouse  when  they  roofed  the  stage. 
As  the  darkness  of  the  Middle  Ages  settled  over 
Europe,  dramatic  art  became  merely  the  degraded 
plaything  of  travelling  bands  of  actors ;  and  perhaps 
because  their  vulgar  and  often  obscene  performances 
could  not  stand  the  clear  light  of  day,  the  great 
open-air  theatres  lapsed  into  decay — and  the  classic 
type  of  playhouse  fell  into  a  disuse  which  lasted  to 
the  present  renaissance. 

The  drama  was  reborn  in  the  tenth  and  eleventh 
centuries  within  the  church,  but  as  soon  as  it  became 
more  than  a  mere  incident  of  religious  service  it 
again  sought  the  out-of-doors.  At  first  the  Mystery 
Plays  were  acted  on  the  church  steps,  and  then  on 
platforms  in  the  churchyard.  Then  the  guilds  de- 
veloped the  pageant-cars,  on  which  they  had  been 
wont  to  present  tableaus  in  the  religious  processions, 
into  elaborate  platform  stages  on  which  the  more 
elaborate  Miracle  Plays  were  acted,  with  realistic 
representations  of  Hell,  Paradise,  and  other  Biblical 


4  THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

localities.  Finally  the  platform  in  an  inn  courtyard 
and  the  popular  "bear-ring"  established  the  type 
of  playhouse  for  the  early  Elizabethan  period,  and 
when  the  genius  of  Marlowe  and  Shakespeare  blos- 
somed, the  theatre  stage  and  pit  still  were  open  to 
the  sky,  though  the  galleries  were  roofed.  In  the 
later  Elizabethan  decadence  the  house  was  com- 
pletely covered  over  and  the  drama  entered  upon 
that  period  in  which  it  became  most  polished  but 
most  artificial  and  farthest  removed  from  the  people. 
For  nearly  three  centuries  following  there  was 
only  one  notable  revival  of  the  open-air  playhouse. 
On  the  estates  of  the  Italian  nobles  of  the  late 
Renaissance  period,  there  came  into  being  the  gar- 
den theatres,  exquisite  little  bits  of  formal  design, 
in  perfect  accord  with  the  noble  villa  gardens,  and 
forming  ideal  settings  for  the  lovely  pastoral  drama 
of  that  time;  and  from  these  certain  copies  were 
made  in  the  gardens  of  France  and  Holland  and 
Germany.  But  interesting  as  the  Italian  "teatro 
di  verdura"  may  be,  it  was  far  less  significant  than 
is  the  present  world-wide  revival  of  the  drama  of 
the  open;  for  the  men  and  women  who  to-day  are 
taking  the  drama  out-of-doors  are  inspired  with 
something  of  the  spirit  that  brought  forth  the  classic 
open-air  theatre  and  the  pre-Elizabethan  religious 
theatre;  and  the  present  age  must  inevitably  take 


THE  MOVEMENT  5 

its  place  as  one  of  the  world's  three  great  periods 
of  outdoor  dramatic  production. 

The  current  revival  is  a  spontaneous  growth, 
arising  on  the  one  hand  from  a  rediscovery  of  the 
value  of  the  out-of-doors  as  a  corrective  to  an  over- 
citified  and  artificial  life,  and  on  the  other,  from  a 
new  spirit  of  dramatic  experiment,  and  protest 
against  the  over-sophisticated  indoor  stage.  This 
movement  has  brought  into  being  countless  dramatic 
festivals  and  pageants,  and  a  remarkable  increase 
in  the  number  of  al  fresco  theatres  of  every  type. 
So  to-day  one  finds  the  old  Roman  theatre  at  Orange, 
France,  cleared  of  ruins,  that  a  famous  Parisian 
company  may  annually  revive  classic  plays  there; 
and  in  faraway  California  a  new  and  beautiful 
Greek  theatre  has  been  built,  not  as  an  archaeologi- 
cal curiosity,  but  to  satisfy  a  very  pressing  need  for 
such  an  open-air  structure.  In  that  same  California 
a  unique  forest  theatre  has  developed  a  new  drama 
form  in  the  Grove  Plays  of  the  Bohemian  Club, 
while  on  the  other  side  of  the  continent  the  Peter- 
borough Pageant  Theatre  and  the  Meriden  Pageant 
Stage  promise  to  create  equally  vital  original  forms. 
In  Europe,  too,  unique  phases  of  dramatic  art  are 
being  created  at  the  "nature"  theatres  at  Thale,  at 
Hertenstein,  and  in  the  Klampenborg  Woods  near 
Copenhagen.  And  in  many  parts  of  the  world  the 


6  THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

garden  theatre  is  again  bringing  the  poetic  drama 
to  its  proper  setting  of  green  trees  and  open  sky. 
It  is  a  poor  month  now  that  does  not  bring  to  the 
devotee  of  open-air  drama  news  of  another  theatre 
either  planned  or  actually  built,  or  word  of  the  es- 
tablishment of  another  annual  outdoor  play-festival. 
The  significance  and  value  of  all  this  activity  may 
be  found  in  two  directions.  In  the  first  place  there 
are  important  dramatic  or  artistic  aspects.  In 
general  there  is  a  distinct  value  in  anything  that  acts 
as  an  antidote  to  the  artificial  narrowing  and  stereo- 
typing of  dramatic  art  as  seen  in  the  "regular" 
theatres.  Because  the  open-air  production  is  more 
often  an  experiment  in  new  forms,  or  a  revival  of 
a  classic,  than  a  play  that  conforms  to  the  set  indoor 
stage  conventions,  it  has  a  broadening  effect  on  both 
the  actors  and  the  audience.  In  the  open-air 
theatres  of  America  there  have  been  presented 
dramas  from  the  Sanskrit,  from  the  French,  from 
the  German,  from  the  Norwegian,  and  even  from 
the  Japanese;  and  there  have  been  revivals  of 
Mystery  Plays  and  Miracle  Plays  and  of  plays  by 
every  notable  English  dramatist  from  Shakespeare 
and  Jonson  to  Bernard  Shaw  and  Stephen  Phillips. 
As  an  educative  force,  and  as  a  corrective  of  the 
crystallizing  influence  of  the  commercial  theatre, 
these  productions  can  hardly  be  overvalued.  But 


THE  CRANBROOK  GREEK  THEATRE.     AN  EXAMPLE  OF  THE  FIRST, 

OR  ARCHITECTURAL,  TYPE  OF  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE. 

[MARCUS  R.  BURROWES,  ARCHITECT] 


THE  MOVEMENT  7 

even  more  important  artistically  are  the  new  forms 
of  drama  that  are  being  developed  by  such  theatres 
as  those  at  Peterborough  and  Madison  and  in  the 
Bohemian  Grove. 

The  MacDowell  musical  pageant-drama,  the 
masques  created  and  presented  by  the  Wisconsin 
players  and  by  community  groups,  the  Grove  Plays 
of  the  Bohemian  Club  artists,  and  certain  of  the 
dance-festivals  at  the  co-educational  and  women's 
universities,  seem  to  foreshadow  the  coming  of  a 
national  form  of  spectacular  drama.  While  one 
cannot  say  that  this  outdoor  art  will  be  the  most 
important  development  of  American  drama  during 
the  coming  decade  or  two,  one  cannot  but  see  that 
it  will  be  the  most  genuine  and  most  spontaneous 
dramatic  expression  of  the  life  of  the  people.  In 
the  matter  of  sheer  visual  beauty  and  in  the  matter 
of  communal  expressiveness,  the  drama  of  the  open 
will  far  surpass  that  of  the  indoor  playhouse.  On 
the  other  hand  one  must  recognize  that  emotional 
drama  must  develop  in  the  more  intimate  atmos- 
phere of  the  roofed-in  theatre.  In  other  words,  the 
outdoor  theatre  movement  is  one  of  the  most  whole- 
some phases  of  current  dramatic  development,  and 
is  building  a  new,  clean  and  beautiful  form  of  art 
expression  more  rapidly  than  any  other;  but  it  can- 
not and  should  not  displace  the  legitimate  activities 


8  THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

of  the  indoor  theatre.  As  a  matter  of  fact  it  is,  by 
force  of  example,  and  by  training  dramatic  artists 
to  the  simplicity  and  directness  of  the  open,  helping 
the  indoor  drama  to  rid  itself  of  those  deadening 
conventions  and  those  artificial  trappings  that  have 
so  long  burdened  dramatic  art. 

Eleanora  Duse  has  said:  "To  save  the  theatre, 
the  theatre  must  be  destroyed;  the  actors  and 
actresses  must  all  die  of  the  plague.  They  poison 
the  air,  they  make  art  impossible.  .  .  .  We  should 
return  to  the  Greeks,  play  in  the  open  air;  the  drama 
dies  of  stalls  and  boxes  and  evening  dress,  and  peo- 
ple who  come  to  digest  their  dinner."  Madame  Duse 
probably  had  no  idea  of  banishing  all  drama  to  the 
open.  Perhaps  she  did  see  that  a  very  vital  and 
lovely  sort  of  drama  might  be  developed  out-of- 
doors.  But  what  she  very  certainly  felt  was  this: 
that  no  current  form  of  dramatic  activity  can  be 
vital  until  the  playwrights,  the  actors,  the  stage  ar- 
tists and  the  audiences,  leaving  behind  all  the  trick- 
eries and  artificialities  of  the  modern  stage,  go  out 
into  the  open  and  learn  the  simplicity,  the  direct- 
ness, and  the  joyousness  of  dramatic  production  un- 
der the  sun  and  stars. 

The  growth  of  the  open-air  theatre  movement  is 
quite  as  remarkable  in  its  social  as  in  its  dramatic 
aspects.  In  the  first  place  there  are  what  may  be 


THE  BOHEMIAN  GROVE  THEATRE.    AN  EXAMPLE  OF  THE    NATURE 

THEATRE"   TYPE. 
[PHOTOGRAPH  BY  GABRIEL  MOULIN] 


THE  MOVEMENT  9 

called  the  hygienic  and  economic  effects  of  any  great 
movement  to  the  out-of-doors.  Nature  is  the  great 
revivifier,  and  the  mere  calling  of  masses  of  people 
away  from  the  roofed-in  places  has  its  salutary  ef- 
fect. Men  always  have  taken  their  sports  into  the 
open;  and  the  outdoor  dramatic  production,  like  a 
game,  sends  men  and  women  back  to  their  cities  re- 
freshed in  mind  and  body.  Then  there  is  the  social 
solidifying  of  the  community  that  comes,  first  from 
association  in  a  common  artistic  purpose,  and  only 
slightly  less  so  from  the  mere  fact  of  recreation  in 
crowds.  The  outdoor  production  usually  brings 
great  numbers  of  people  to  the  stage,  and  the  con- 
stant association  in  rehearsal  creates  a  very  real  bond 
of  interest;  there  is  moreover  no  such  gulf  between 
players  and  audience  as  exists  in  the  indoor  thea- 
tre. Indeed,  the  present  outdoor  production 
achieves  something  of  that  pervading  communal 
spirit  which  existed  in  Greece  when  the  actors  were 
simply  the  leaders  in  the  revels,  speaking  for  their 
followers;  and  which  existed  again  in  the  Middle 
Ages  when  the  churchmen  were  the  players  and  their 
audience  the  congregation,  actor  and  spectator  feel- 
ing in  the  production  a  common  sense  of  worship 
and  reverence.  Looking  back  at  the  long  series  of 
pageants  and  masques  produced  by  American  com- 
munities in  the  last  decade,  sometimes  in  open-air 


io  THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

theatres  and  sometimes  in  improvised  woodland  set- 
tings, one  wonders  if  they  have  not  done  more  to 
create  a  healthy  civic  sense  than  all  the  books  ever 
written  about  the  duties  of  the  citizen.  Another  so- 
cial aspect  of  the  open-air  theatre  is  to  be  found  in 
the  perfect  equality  of  the  seating  arrangements. 
Here  if  anywhere  is  the  purely  democratic  play- 
house, for  there  are  no  boxes  from  which  to  exhibit 
jewels  and  costly  gowns,  and  there  is  no  division  into 
orchestra,  balcony  and  gallery. 

And  above  all  these  others  there  is  the  intangible 
spiritual  aspect,  a  subtle,  almost  religious  effect  on 
each  individual,  which  collectively  must  make  for  so- 
cial betterment.  For  man  is  never  else  so  near  God 
as  when  certain  sorts  of  dramatic  beauty  are  re- 
vealed to  him  under  the  open  sky. 

For  convenience  of  discussion,  all  open-air  thea- 
tres, ancient  and  modern,  may  be  divided  roughly 
into  three  classes,  according  to  their  structural  char- 
acteristics. First  there  are  the  purely  architectural 
theatres,  usually  of  classic  type,  large  stone  or  con- 
crete structures,  with  massive  stage  backgrounds.  In 
this  group  are  all  the  old  Greek  and  Roman  theatres, 
and  of  modern  buildings  such  notable  examples  as 
the  Arena  Goldoni  at  Florence  and  the  Hearst  Greek 
Theatre  at  Berkeley.  Closely  allied  to  this  type  is 


THE    THEATRE    AT    VILLA    GORI,    ITALY.      AN    EXAMPLE     OF    THE 
THIRD,    OR   GARDEN   THEATRE,   TYPE. 


THE  MOVEMENT  n 

the  other  purely  architectural  sort,  the  mediaeval  re- 
ligious theatre,  with  its  platform  stage  and  back- 
ground of  built-up  "localities,"  of  which  the  only  im- 
portant contemporary  survival  is  the  Passion  Play 
Theatre  at  Ober-Ammergau. 

In  the  second  place  there  is  the  so-called  "nature 
theatre"  or  "forest  theatre,"  which  is  the  exact  op- 
posite of  the  architectural  type.  Usually  its  stage 
is  merely  an  open  place  in  the  woods  or  on  a  moun- 
tainside, with  an  idyllic  natural  background,  while 
the  auditorium  often  is  nothing  more  than  an  open 
hillside  or  sloping  meadow,  without  even  the  arti- 
ficial touch  of  built-in  seats.  Of  the  nature  thea- 
tres, the  best-known  of  those  in  Europe  are  the  Harz 
Mountain  Theatre  at  Thale  in  Germany,  and  the 
open-air  theatre  at  Hertenstein,  near  Lucerne.  The 
most  important  examples  in  America  are  probably 
the  pageant  theatre  at  Peterborough,  New  Hamp- 
shire, and  the  Bohemian  Grove  Theatre  in  Cal- 
ifornia. 

The  third  type  of  open-air  playhouse  is  the  gar- 
den theatre,  a  type  that  stands  between  the  other 
two,  utilizing  the  trees  and  shrubs  of  nature  for  back- 
ground, but  often  adding  incidental  architectural 
features,  such  as  pergolas,  treillage-work,  and  stone 
walls  and  stairways.  The  theatres  of  the  Italian 
villa  gardens  are  the  most  notable  historic  examples, 


12  THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

while  the  theatres  at  Mannheim,  Germany,  and  Mt. 
Kisco,  New  York,  may  be  considered  as  typical  mod- 
ern adaptations. 

Each  type  has  its  distinctive  virtues  and  its  dis- 
tinctive limitations,  which  really  determine  the 
forms  of  outdoor  production.  As  these  are  mat- 
ters of  prime  importance  to  theatre-designer  and 
producer  alike,  the  type,  rather  than  historic  se- 
quence, is  made  the  basis  of  this  book's  division  into 
chapters.  Thus  the  chapter  on  the  old  Greek 
and  Roman  theatres  is  followed  not  by  that 
on  the  mediaeval  religious  theatre,  but  by  "Modern 
Greek  Theatres."  The  average  reader,  less  inter- 
ested in  the  history  of  theatre-building  than  in  what 
can  be  done  and  is  being  done  in  a  certain  sort  of 
playhouse,  will  thus  find  all  the  theatres  of  one  type 
treated  in  one  group,  with  a  discussion  of  each  play- 
house from  the  viewpoint  of  structural  characteris- 
tics, and  from  that  of  actual  achievement  in  dra- 
matic production. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE   OLD   GREEK   AND   ROMAN   THEATRES 

THE  Greeks  did  not  designedly  take  their 
drama  out-of-doors ;  it  was  born  there  and 
grew  there  naturally.  The  drama  was  in- 
timately interbound  with  religious  celebration,  and 
it  would  have  seemed  little  short  of  sacrilege  to  take 
such  a  communal  expression  into  the  artificial  and 
artificializing  atmosphere  of  indoors.  From  begin- 
ning to  end,  from  the  time  when  it  was  merely  a 
rude  circle  surrounded  by  temporary  wooden 
benches  to  the  time  when  it  was  a  magnificent  stone 
structure,  the  classic  theatre  was  open  to  the  sky. 

When  the  revellers  at  the  festivals  of  Dionysus 
permitted  one  of  their  fellow-participants  in  the 
songs  and  dances  to  be  singled  out  as  leader,  and 
allowed  him  to  take  the  chief  part  in  their  impro- 
vised dialogues,  the  Greek  drama  became  a  living 
thing.  At  first  this  leader  mounted  upon  the  sacri- 
ficial table,  beside  the  altar  around  whicfo*the  revel- 
lers had  danced,  and  from  that  vantage-point  ban- 
died with  those  who  now  became  his  "chorus" ;  and 

13 


i4  THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

the  mere  onlookers  brought  up  benches  all  round  the 
dancing-circle.  As  the  parts  to  be  played  by  the 
actor  multiplied,  a  tent,  or  "skene,"  was  built  for 
him  at  one  side  of  the  circle,  where  he  could  retire 
to  make  the  necessary  changes  of  costume;  and  then 
his  platform  was  moved  to  the  side  of  the  tent,  and 
while  the  chorus  continued  to  dance  about  the  cen- 
tral altar,  the  audience  was  pushed  away  from  one 
side,  occupying  now  only  three-fourths,  or  less,  of 
the  territory  about  the  dancing-place. 

In  this  arrangement  may  be  seen  the  rough  mould 
into  which  every  later  typically  Greek  theatre  was 
cast.  First,  and  most  typical,  was  the  "orchestra" 
forming  a  full  circle,  with  the  altar  of  Dionysus  in 
the  centre,  about  which  the  chorus  danced;  second, 
the  auditorium  with  its  rows  of  seats  surrounding 
perhaps  two-thirds  of  the  outer  circumference  of 
the  orchestra;  and  third,  the  tent  and  platform  on 
the  third  side,  prototype  of  all  the  stage  buildings 
for  many  centuries  to  follow.  Not  until  the  glory 
of  Greece  faded  before  the  grandeur  of  Rome  did 
the  orchestra  become  the  half-circle  of  the  later  clas- 
sic and  the  modern  theatre;  and  only  then  was  the 
auditorium  cut  down  so  that  it  also  was  semi-cir- 
cular in  shape,  so  that  all  the  spectators  faced  the 
stage  rather  than  the  orchestra. 

In  Athens,  always  the  true  home  of  Greek  drama, 


THE  THEATRE  OF  DIONYSUS  AT  ATHENS.  THIS  IS  THE  MOST 
IMPORTANT  OF  ALL  THEATRES.  IN  HISTORY.  ON  THIS  SITE 
DRAMATIC  ART  WAS  FIRST  DEVELOPED  OUT  OF  THE  GREEK 
RELIGIOUS  FESTIVALS,  AND  HERE  THE  GENIUS  OF  AESCHYLUS, 
SOPHOCLES  AND  EURIPIDES  FLOWERED.  THE  PRESENT  RUINS  DATE 
FROM  ONE  OF  THE  ROMAN  RECONSTRUCTIONS,  WHEN  THE  THEA- 
TRE HAD  LOST  MANY  OF  THE  ORIGINAL  GREEK  CHARACTERISTICS. 


OLD  GREEK  AND  ROMAN  15 

the  temporary  structures  built  annually  at  the  time 
of  the  Dionysia  sufficed  for  the  productions  for  a 
number  of  years.  Perhaps  it  was  in  499  B.C.,  when 
the  temporary  wooden  benches  collapsed,  bringing 
death  and  injury  to  many  of  the  audience,  that  the 
first  substantial  theatre  was  begun.  Even  then  the 
seats  and  stage  buildings  were  only  of  wood;  but 
earthen  foundations  underlay  the  benches,  and  the 
"skene"  was  probably  of  more  solid  construction 
and  greater  beauty  than  the  yearly  temporary  erec- 
tions had  been. 

Although  there  still  is  some  controversy  among 
archaeologists  over  the  matter,  it  seems  fairly  well 
established  that  the  Athenian  theatre  in  which  the 
genius  of  ^schylus,  Sophocles  and  Euripides  flow- 
ered in  the  fifth  century  B.C.  was  of  wooden  con- 
struction. Passing  over  the  gradual  modifications 
which  the  wooden  theatres  doubtless  underwent,  in 
this  century  which  witnessed  so  many  changes  in  the 
drama,  one  may  more  profitably  turn  to  the  stone 
structures,  of  which  sufficient  ruins  remain  to  afford 
the  basis  of  a  reconstruction/ — even  though  the 
tragic  drama  had  already  perceptibly  declined  at  the 
time  they  were  built. 

The  first  stone  theatre  in  Athens — and  the  most 
famous  of  all  classic  theatres — was  constructed  on 
the  site  of  its  wooden  predecessors,  in  the  enclosure 


16          THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

dedicated  to  the  god  Dionysus,  on  the  south  side 
of  the  Acropolis.  The  orchestra  was  a  perfect  cir- 
cle with  an  altar  in  the  centre.  During  the  purely 
Greek  period  the  orchestra  floor  was  formed  of 
earth  tamped  hard  and  smooth,  the  marble  pave- 
ment which  exists  to-day  being  a  Roman  addition. 
It  was  here  that  the  chorus  danced  and  sang,  and 
therefore  the  interest  of  the  spectators  centred  here 
rather  than  on  the  stage. 

The  Athenian  auditorium,  as  usual  throughout 
Greece,  was  shaped  in  a  hollow  of  a  hillside,  in  this 
case  violating  the  well-recognized  rule  that  a  thea- 
tre should  never  face  the  south.  This  auditorium 
was  formed  of  seventy-eight  tiers  of  seats,  of  Peiraic 
limestone  except  where  carved  from  the  solid  rock 
of  the  Acropolis.  The  lower  tiers  were  in  the  shape 
of  a  semi-circle  with  its  ends  prolonged  in  straight 
lines,  like  an  inverted  U;  but  as  the  outline  of  the 
theatre  was  irregular,  the  upper  tiers  were  not  sym- 
metrical. At  Athens,  as  generally  elsewhere,  the 
front  row  of  seats  consisted  of  marble  chairs  for 
priests  and  other  dignitaries,  the  elaborately-carved 
central  one  being  reserved  for  the  Priest  of  Diony- 
sus. The  main  body  of  the  auditorium  was  divided 
by  fourteen  passage-ways  up  and  down,  making  thir- 
teen wedge-shaped  blocks  of  seats;  and  laterally, 
about  half  way  up,  by  a  wide  passage-way,  or  "di- 


OLD  GREEK  AND  ROMAN  17 

azoma,"  which  formed  part  of  a  through  road  when 
the  theatre  was  not  in  use. 

According  to  the  latest  and  most  authoritative  es- 
timates the  Theatre  of  Dionysus  seated  about  17,- 
ooo  people,  although  it  was  formerly  believed  that 
almost  30,000  could  be  accommodated.  The  great 
size  of  the  Greek  theatres  is  explained  by  the  fact 
that  they  were  designed  to  hold  the  entire  theatre- 
going  population  of  a  city  at  one  performance. 
Throughout  the  most  splendid  period  of  Attic  drama 
the  performance  of  tragic  plays  was  limited  to  the 
few  days  in  each  year  that  were  given  up  to  the 
Dionysia,  and  no  play  was  presented  more  than 
once.  The  seating  capacity  of  the  theatre  at 
Megalopolis,  the  largest  in  Greece,  has  been  esti- 
mated at  figures  varying  from  20,000  to  44,000, 
while  50,000  has  been  suggested  as  the  possible 
number  of  the  audience  at  the  theatre  in  Ephesus. 
These  larger  figures  are  doubtless  over-estimates. 

The  form  of  the  stage-buildings,  or  skene,  of  the 
theatre  at  Athens,  has  been  a  matter  of  vigorous 
controversy  among  archaeologists.  It  is  generally 
agreed,  however,  that  the  skene  was  in  shape  a  long 
rectangle,  with  walls  extending  forward  toward  the 
auditorium  at  each  end.  Wilhelm  Dorpfeld,  ex- 
cavator of  the  theatre,  and  one  of  the  most  learned 
of  modern  archaeologists,  maintains  that  the  skene 


1 8  THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

was  merely  a  high  wall,  forming  a  background  for 
the  action  of  chorus  and  players,  all  which  he  be- 
lieves took  place  in  the  circular  orchestra.  His  view 
is  gradually  finding  wide  acceptance  among  schol- 
ars. The  opposite  theory  is  that  a  stage  platform 
was  constructed  between  the  wall  and  the  orchestra, 
terminated  at  each  side  by  the  projecting  side  walls, 
or  "paraskenia."  This  platform,  called  the  "lo- 
geion,"  or  speaking-place,  is  supposed  to  have  been 
occupied  by  the  actors,  who  thus  were  lifted  above 
the  chorus  in  the  orchestra.  If  this  theory  is  cor- 
rect, doubtless  temporary  flights  of  stairs  were  built 
from  the  logeion  to  the  orchestra  to  permit  the  nec- 
essary action  between  players  and  chorus.  It  has 
been  suggested  that  the  front  wall  of  this  platform 
was  panelled,  with  doors  giving  access  to  the  stage- 
building  from  the  orchestra. 

In  the  typically  Greek  theatres  the  high  wall  be- 
hind the  stage  and  at  the  ends,  was  ornamented  with 
a  single  set  of  columns,  a  feature  which  later  was 
developed  by  the  Romans  into  an  elaborate  two-  or 
three-storied  system  of  columns,  entablatures  and 
pediments.  In  both  the  Greek  and  the  Roman 
types  the  rear  stage  wall  usually  was  pierced  by  three 
or  five  doorways ;  and  by  a  generally-understood  con- 
vention, entrance  from  each  particular  door  indi- 
cated that  the  actor  was  to  be  imagined  as  coming 


A  CONJECTURAL  RESTORATION  OF  THE  GREEK  THEATRE  AT  EGESTA. 
THE     FORM     OF    THE    AUDITORIUM     IS     PROBABLY    CORRECT,     BUT 
THERE  IS  LITTLE  EVIDENCE  TO  INDICATE  THAT  THE  STAGE  BUILD- 
INGS  ARE    AUTHENTIC. 

[FROM  j.  H.  STRACK'S  "DAS  ALTGRIECHISCHE  THEATERGEBAUDE"] 


OLD  GREEK  AND  ROMAN  19 

from  a  certain  place:  when  a  figure  came  on  the 
stage  through  the  door  at  the  right,  it  was  known 
that  he  came  from  the  immediate  neighborhood, 
whereas  one  coming  through  the  door  at  the  left 
was  clearly  a  traveller  from  a  distance,  and  so  on. 
These  conventions  arose  from  the  situation  of  the 
theatre  of  Dionysus  with  relation  to  the  city,  the 
country  roads,  the  harbor,  and  other  topographic 
features. 

The  proper  height  of  the  stage  platform  in  a 
Greek  theatre  is  given  by  the  Roman  architect 
Vitruvius  *  as  from  ten  to  twelve  feet,  and  the  depth 
as  ten  feet.  But  there  is  no  exact  evidence  in  re- 
gard to  that  at  Athens,  and  the  stages  of  other 
Greek  and  Greek-Roman  theatres  vary  from  eight 
to  thirteen  feet  in  height  and  similarly  in  depth. 
The  existing  remains  of  the  stage  at  Athens,  with 
the  sculptured  front-wall,  throw  no  light  on  the  sub- 
ject, as  they  date  from  the  time  of  one  of  the  Ro- 
man reconstructions. 

In  the  Greek  theatre  the  auditorium  and  skene 
were  in  effect  two  separate  buildings,  and  the  space 
between  was  used  as  a  gateway,  giving  entrance  to 
the  orchestra  and  auditorium.  In  the  later  Greek 
period,  and  especially  as  the  Roman  influence  was 

*    Vitruvius'  rules  for  the  construction  of  Greek   and  Roman 
theatres  are  quoted  in  translation  in  an  appendix  of  this  volume. 


20  THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

felt,  the  stage  was  brought  nearer  to  the  auditorium, 
and  the  gateways  became  doors.  Then  finally,  in 
Roman  times,  the  auditorium  wall  and  the  stage  wall 
merged  into  each  other,  and  the  entrance  became  a 
vaulted  passage-way. 

The  ruins  of  the  theatre  at  Epidaurus  in  some 
particulars  are  more  interesting  than  those  of  the 
Athenian  structure.  The  auditorium  is  almost  in- 
tact, and  the  orchestra  ring  is  perfectly  indicated, 
as  are  the  foundations  of  the  stage-buildings.  The 
auditorium,  unlike  that  of  the  Theatre  of  Dionysus, 
is  perfectly  symmetrical,  resulting  in  a  more  graceful 
general  appearance.  The  topmost  circle  of  seats 
has  a  diameter  of  four  hundred  and  fifteen  feet,  the 
total  seating  capacity  about  equalling  that  of  the  au- 
ditorium at  Athens.  In  addition  to  the  row  of  seats 
of  honor  at  the  bottom  of  the  auditorium,  there  are 
two  rows  on  the  level  of  the  diazoma,  two-thirds  of 
the  distance  to  the  top. 

While  the  other  known  theatres  followed  closely 
the  type  already  described,  there  are  certain  not- 
able variations.  At  Priene  the  row  of  seats  of 
honor  is  formed  as  a  continuous  bench,  with  five 
thrones  set  in  at  various  points;  and  similar  thrones 
are  found  at  the  theatre  of  Oropus.  At  Priene  the 
altar,  which  elsewhere  almost  invariably  stands  at 
the  exact  centre  of  the  orchestra,  is  instead  on  the 


THE  THEATRE  AT  EPIDAURUS.      THIS  IS  THE   BEST  PRESERVED  OF 

THE    GREEK    THEATRES.      IT    SHOWS    THE    COMPLETE    ORCHESTRA 

CIRCLE,    AND    THE    STAGE    SET    BACK    FROM    THE    AUDITORIUM    IN 

TYPICAL  GREEK  STYLE. 


OLD  GREEK  AND  ROMAN  21 

circumference  of  the  orchestra  circle,  at  the  middle 
of  the  row  of  seats  of  honor.  At  Megalopolis 
(the  largest  theatre  in  Greece,  with  a  diameter  of 
474  feet)  a  council  chamber,  the  "Thersilion,"  faced 
the  auditorium,  taking  the  place  of  the  usual  stage- 
buildings.  The  steps  and  portico  of  the  structure 
could  be  used  when  an  architectural  background  was 
appropriate,  as  was  nearly  always  the  case  with 
Greek  drama;  and  at  other  times  a  temporary 
wooden  stage  may  have  been  erected  against  the 
building.  The  stone  skene,  of  which  the  ruins  re- 
main, probably  was  not  built  until  the  Thersilion  fell 
into  decay.  In  a  few  of  the  theatres,  as  at  Eretria, 
an  underground  passage  connected  the  centre  of  the 
orchestra  with  the  interior  of  the  stage  buildings,  a 
feature  for  which  no  adequate  explanation  has  been 
given. 

Greek  theatres  were  built  not  alone  in  Greece,  but 
wherever  permanent  Greek  colonies  were  developed 
along  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  Some 
of  the  finest  examples  were  in  Asia  Minor.  Besides 
those  already  mentioned,  some  of  the  most  notable 
ruins  are  at  Delphi,  Delos,  Eretria,  Aizari,  Pas- 
sinus,  and  Pergamon. 

The  dramatic  productions  in  the  Greek  theatres 
were  always  connected  with  religious  celebrations, 
and  certain  religious  rites  accompanied  every  per- 


22  THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

formance.  But  after  the  first  separation  of  the 
actor-leader  from  the  worshipping  chorus,  the  drama 
speedily  developed  along  less  ceremonial  and  more 
human  lines.  In  535  B.C.,  shortly  •  after  tragedy 
had  been  officially  recognized  and  put  under  state 
authority,  the  first  dramatic  contest  was  instituted 
at  Athens.  Soon  came  ^Eschylus,  winning  the  vic- 
tory in  472,  and  after  him  Sophocles  and  Euripides. 
By  the  middle  of  the  following  century  the  drama 
had  declined  again,  and  the  golden  period  had  gone. 
The  plays  of  this  time  were  simple,  straightforward, 
emotion-compelling  dramas,  which  needed  little  or 
no  background  to  help  them  hold  the  interest  of  the 
audience.  We  are  told  that  as  early  as  the  time  of 
Sophocles  scenery  was  used  to  cover  up  the  bare 
architectural  stage-wall.  But  if  painted  scenery  was 
used  at  all,  it  was  very  simple,  and  the  only  aim  was 
to  suggest  the  proper  setting;  in  other  words  there 
was  no  attempt  at  realism.  There  was  never  any 
change  of  scene  in  the  Greek  theatre,  and  the  set- 
ting of  the  action  always  was  understood  to  be  out- 
of-doors.  Until  the  Roman  period  there  never  was 
a  stage  curtain,  entrances  and  exits  all  being  made  in 
full  sight  of  the  audience. 

In  addition  to  dramatic  productions  the  Greek 
theatres  were  used  for  religious  exercises  at  the 
Dionysian  festivals,  for  political  meetings,  for  the 


RUINS   OF  THE  GREEK-ROMAN  THEATRE  AT  SYRACUSE. 
FOR   ITS    IMMENSE   SIZE. 


NOTABLE 


OLD  GREEK  AND  ROMAN  23 

dithyrambic  choral  contests,  and  by  the  rhapsodists 
and  harp-players.  The  annual  cock-fight  was  held 
here,  and  all  sorts  of  vaudeville  performers  ap- 
peared at  times.  In  the  Roman  period  the  Athenian 
theatre  was  even  desecrated  by  gladiatorial  con- 
tests, which  were  hotly  protested  by  certain  of  the 
Greeks ;  and  there  is  evidence  indicating  that  at  one 


Comparative  sketch  plans  of  Greek  and  Roman  theatres,  showing 
change  in  relation  between  auditorium  and  stage. 

time  the  lower  part  of  the  theatre  was  made  water- 
tight, in  order  that  the  orchestra  might  be  con- 
verted into  a  lake  for  mimic  sea-fights. 

The  Roman  theatre  differed  from  the  Greek 
mainly  in  two  particulars.  As  the  chorus  no  longer 
was  of  greater  importance  than  the  actors,  the  or- 
chestra was  cut  down  from  a  full  circle  to  a  semi- 
circle, and  the  stage  buildings  were  pushed  up 
against  the  auditorium,  forming  a  single  building  of 
the  whole  composition.  These  changes  were  neces- 


24  THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

sary  because  the  spectators,  who  in  the  Greek  thea- 
tres often  faced  away  from,  rather  than  toward,  the 
stage,  and  still  were  content  if  they  could  see  the  or- 
chestra clearly,  now  must  face  the  stage,  to  which 
all  the  action  hereafter  was  to  be  confined.  The  sec- 
ond great  change  was  in  the  wall  behind  the  stage, 
which  was  greatly  heightened  and  elaborately  dec- 
orated with  rows  of  columns,  one  above  the  other. 
The  stage  platform  was  at  first  made  high,  in  order 
to  give  the  spectators  on  the  uppermost  tiers  of  seats 
as  good  a  view  of  the  action  as  possible,  and  it  was 
narrow  so  that  those  looking  up  at  it  might  always 
see  the  actors  in  full;  but  later  the  desire  to  stage 
gorgeous  spectacles  made  greater  depth  necessary, 
with  a  consequent  lessening  of  the  height.  Vitruvius 
recommends  that  the  height  of  the  platform  in  a 
Roman  theatre  be  not  over  five  feet.  The  invention 
of  vaulting  allowed  the  Roman  theatres  to  be  built 
on  level  spaces,  the  auditorium  bowl  being  held  up 
by  series  of  walls  and  arches,  instead  of  being 
shaped  in  the  hollow  of  a  hillside. 

The  only  surviving  classic  theatre  in  Rome,  the 
Theatre  of  Marcellus,  has  been  so  changed  in  later 
times  that  it  does  not  illustrate  the  characteristics  of 
the  type  as  well  as  several  others.  Those  at 
Orange,  in  Southern  France,  and  at  Aspendus,  in 
Asia  Minor,  are  the  best-preserved  of  the  typically 


,  ' 


RUINS  OF  THE  ROMAN  THEATRE  AT  TAORMINA 


OLD  GREEK  AND  ROMAN  2$ 

Roman  structures.  In  both,  the  auditorium  and 
stage-wall  meet,  forming  one  building,  and  in  both 
the  stage-front  is  approximately  on  the  diameter  of 
the  orchestra  circle.  In  both,  too,  the  stage  was 
evidently  roofed  with  wood.  At  Aspendus  another 
typical  feature  is  the  portico  that  surrounds  the  top 
of  the  auditorium.  Here,  too,  is  the  best  preserved 
stage-wall,  with  the  elaborate  architectural  decora- 
tion formed  by  rows  of  niches  flanked  by  columns 
and  entablatures. 

In  most  of  the  Roman  structures  the  arrangement 
of  seats  and  aisles  followed  the  Greek  plan  very 
closely.  The  Roman  theatres,  like  the  Greek,  were 
very  large.  That  at  Orange  measures  nearly  three 
hundred  and  fifty  feet  in  width,  with  a  stage  wall  one 
hundred  and  eighteen  feet  high;  and  the  stage  floor 
is  over  two  hundred  feet  long  and  over  forty  feet 
deep.  The  widest  diameter  of  the  structure  at  Am- 
man, in  Syria,  was  four  hundred  and  twenty-eight 
feet.  The  three  stone  theatres  in  Rome  (all  built 
during  the  first  century  before  Christ)  are  estimated 
to  have  accommodated  audiences  as  follows:  Pom- 
pey's  Theatre,  17,580;  Theatre  of  Balbus,  11,510; 
Theatre  of  Marcellus,  20,500.  Larger  temporary 
theatres  were  built  of  wood  on  special  occasions,  and 
it  is  chronicled  that  the  extravagance  of  decoration 
of  certain  of  these  ephemeral  structures  was  almost 


26  THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

beyond  belief.  The  Romans  invented  means  of 
stretching  huge  awnings  over  certain  of  their  thea- 
tres, to  protect  the  audiences  from  the  hot  southern 
sun ;  and  the  smaller  theatre  at  Pompeii  was  perma- 
nently roofed  at  some  time  in  its  history,  as  is  proved 
by  a  tablet  recently  found,  which  commemorates  the 
giving  of  the  roof  by  a  wealthy  citizen. 

Throughout  the  development  of  the  Roman  the- 
atre there  is  a  noticeable  tendency  away  from  the 
Greek  openness  and  simplicity,  toward  enclosure  and 
toward  elaboration  of  detail.  The  change  corre- 
sponds very  closely  to  the  transformation  of  the 
dramatic  production  itself.  The  Latin  dramatists 
at  best  were  successful  imitators  of  the  Greeks. 
Then  as  time  went  on,  more  stress  was  put  on  the 
scenery  and  less  on  the  play,  and  finally  spectacle 
displaced  drama  almost  entirely.  Then  when  the 
people  were  not  drawn  away  from  the  theatre  to 
the  circus  or  arena,  gladiatorial  contests  and  sensa- 
tional vaudeville  performances  were  brought  to  the 
theatre  stage — making  its  degradation  complete. 

Closely  related  to  the  theatre  of  the  Greeks  and 
Romans  was  the  "Odeon"  or  "Odeum,"  a  smaller 
structure  which  usually  was  near  the  theatre,  or  even 
connected  with  it  by  a  portico.  The  Odeons  are 
referred  to  by  classic  writers  as  places  for  concerts 
and  for  rehearsals  of  plays,  and  doubtless  dramatic 


ABOVE  IS  A  MEASURED  RECONSTRUCTION  OF  THE  ROMAN  THEATRE 

AT  ORANGE,  FRANCE,  SHOWING  THE  TYPICAL  ROOFED  STAGE,  WITH 

ITS     ELABORATE     BACKGROUND    OF     ARCHITECTURAL    ORNAMENT. 

BELOW,    THE    THEATRE    AT    ORANGE    AS    IT    EXISTS    TODAY. 


productions  were  occasionally  staged  in  them. 
Some  authorities  insist  that  the  Odeon  of  Herodes 
Atticus,  adjoining  the  Theatre  of  Dionysus  at 
Athens,  was  roofed,  thus  affording  a  place  of  shelter 
in  case  the  production  at  the  theatre  itself  was  inter- 
rupted by  rain ;  but  others  point  out  the  impossibility 
of  roofing  such  a  structure  before  Roman  times, 
suggesting  that  the  cedar  roof  mentioned  by  a  con- 
temporary writer  refers  to  the  stage-root  common 
in  all  Roman  theatres.  However  that  may  be,  the 
Odeon  and  allied  forms  of  assembly-place  offer  many 
suggestions  for  the  modern  builder  of  open-air  the- 
atres. Thus  the  form  of  the  little  Odeon  at  the 
Imperial  Villa  at  Pausilypon  is  more  suited  to  the 
modern  drama  of  the  open  than  is  that  of  the  nearby 
theatre.  The  tiers  of  seats  are  in  shape  consider- 
ably less  than  a  half-circle,  and  the  stage  shows  very 
interesting  variations  from  the  traditional  arrange- 
ment. This  Odeon  also  has  a  notable  feature  in  the 
large  imperial  box  at  the  top  of  the  auditorium. 
The  little  "Ekklesiasterion"  at  Priene,  although  hav- 
ing little  to  do  with  dramatic  matters,  is  of  interest 
to  the  student  of  the  ancient  theatre,  as  the  audi- 
torium is  not  circular,  each  tier  of  seats  forming 
three  sides  of  a  square. 

Other  buildings  common  to   Greek   or   Roman 
cities,  which  are  in  some  measure  allied  to  the  the- 


28  THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

atre  in  form,  are  the  stadion,  the  amphitheatre  or 
arena,  and  the  circus.  Such  notable  examples  as  the 
Panathenaic  Stadion  at  Athens,  the  Olympian 
Stadion,  and  the  Colosseum  and  Circus  Maximus  at 
Rome,  are  interesting  architecturally  and  as  a  re- 
flection of  the  life  and  tastes  of  the  peoples ;  but  they 
had  little  influence  on  the  form  of  the  theatre  or 
dramatic  art.  The  Panathenaic  Stadion  recently 
was  magnificently  rebuilt,  and  at  least  one  revival  of 
a  classic  play  has  been  given  there.  Similarly  there 
have  beeh  modern  productions  in  the  half-ruined 
amphitheatres  at  Nimes  and  Aries,  in  France. 

After  the  drama  and  the  theatre  alike  had  been 
abandoned  to  the  vulgar,  in  the  years  of  the  Roman 
decadence,  it  seems  not  to  have  occurred  to  any  one 
that  the  great  structures  might  again  be  utilized 
legitimately,  until  in  1869  Felix  Ripert  and  Antony 
Real  planned  classical  productions  in  the  Roman 
Theatre  at  Orange.  The  stage  had  been  cleared 
of  ruins  some  years  before  by  French  archaeologists, 
and  enough  of  the  original  tiers  of  seats  remained 
to  accommodate  an  average  modern  audience.  The 
first  productions  were  so  successful  that  others  fol- 
lowed at  intervals  of  a  few  years  until  1899,  due 
in  part  to  the  efforts  of  the  poet,  Frederic  Mistral, 
leader  among  the  exponents  of  open-air  drama  in 
France.  Since  the  latter  date  the  Comedie  Fran- 


THE    SMALLER  THEATRE    AT   POMPEII.       THIS   IS  ONE   OF  THE  MOST 
GRACEFULLY  DESIGNED  AND  MOST  INTIMATE  OF  ANCIENT  THEATRES. 


OLD  GREEK  AND  ROMAN  29 

C,aise  has  given  an  annual  series  of  classical  produc- 
tions in  the  theatre,  and  more  recently  the  Opera 
has  given  regular  performances.  Thus  the  walls 
that  once  echoed  to  the  dialogue  of  the  Latin  poets 
and  to  the  revived  lines  of  the  immortal  Greeks, 
after  fifteen  centuries  or  more  of  silence  have  rever- 
berated again  to  the  voices  of  the  greatest  contem- 
porary players — to  Sarah  Bernhardt  in  "Phedre," 
to  Coquelin  in  "Amphitrion,"  and  to  a  hundred 
others  whose  names  are  written  large  in  modern 
dramatic  history. 

In  Greece  and  in  Italy  there  has  been  little  at- 
tempt to  revive  interest  in  the  theatres  of  the  past. 
With  the  exception  of  a  few  playhouses  of  the  type 
of  the  famous  Arena  Goldoni,  the  open-air  theatres 
of  the  Greeks  and  Italians  of  to-day  are  chiefly  of 
the  summer  amusement-park  type.  >  It  remained  for 
the  French  to  bring  back  to  one  of  the  classic  the- 
atres some  measure  of  its  traditional  dignity  and 
splendor  of  production.  And  it  remained  for  a 
far-away  people  of  another  continent  to  awake  to 
the  need  of  a  theatre  of  the  classic  type,  a  people 
who  were  to  build  to  suit  the  demands  of  their  own 
art,  but  with  all  the  old  Greek  beauty  of  architecture 
and  with  the  Greek  love  of  the  out-of-doors. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  MODERN  GREEK  THEATRES 

OF  modern  open-air  theatres,  all  that  are 
characterized  by  rising  semi-circular  tiers 
of  seats,  with  raised  stages  and  high  rear 
stage-walls,  are  indiscriminately  termed  "Greek" 
theatres,  whether  modelled  on  Greek  or  on  Roman 
forms.  It  is  easy  to  differentiate  this  classic  type 
of  structure  from  both  the  nature  theatre  and  the 
garden  theatre;  for  the  latter  two  are  built  of  na- 
ture's materials,  of  trees  and  shrubs  and  hedges, 
whereas  the  Greek  theatre  is  architectural  in  every 
sense. 

It  is  curious  that  the  majority  of  modern  Greek 
theatres  are  to  be  found  grouped  in  a  single  state 
that  is  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  world  from  Greece. 
In  California  there  are  four  so-called  Greek  the- 
atres, and  others  are  building.  In  the  rest  of  the 
United  States  there  are  only  two  structures  that  ap- 
proach the  type,  and  in  Europe  practically  all  of  the 
modern  open-air  playhouses  are  of  the  nature- 
theatre  type.  The  reason  is  not  far  to  seek.  In 

30 


THE  MODERN  GREEK  31 

California  the  climate  is  such  that  an  open-air  struc- 
ture affords  the  maximum  of  usefulness,  so  that  a 
roofless  playhouse  is  not  considered  merely  a  tem- 
porary or  experimental  matter,  but  rather  a  perma- 
nent and  very  practical  bit  of  artistic  equipment.  In 
most  parts  of  California  there  is  a  rainless  season 
of  at  least  four  months,  and  four  or  five  months 
more  of  each  year  are  so  generally  fair  that  the 
outdoor  producer  is  practically  assured  of  perfect 
weather  conditions.  So  the  state  has  bred  a  race 
of  outdoor  people,  lovers  of  nature  and  all  that 
the  open  offers,  and  it  is  not  surprising  that  they 
have  taken  their  drama,  like  so  many  of  their  other 
activities,  out  under  the  sun  and  stars. 

The  most  notable  of  the  purely  architectural  play- 
houses is  the  Hearst  Greek  Theatre  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  California,  in  Berkeley.  This  structure  is 
not,  as  has  so  often  been  said,  an  example  of  per- 
fect fidelity  to  ancient  type.  On  the  contrary,  it  is 
a  curious  mingling  of  Greek  and  Roman  forms.  It 
is  also  very  wisely  modified  to  conform  to  the  best 
traditions  of  modern  dramatic  art,  although  there 
is  no  provision  for  modern  realistic  scenery  or  other 
ephemeral  and  inartistic  phases  of  contemporary 
staging.  The  general  form  of  the  building  is 
Roman  in  that  the  auditorium  outline  forms  only 
slightly  more  than  a  semi-circle,  and  the  orchestra 


32  THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

circle  is  cut  down  to  very  small  dimensions;  and  the 
low,  wide  steps  of  the  lower  auditorium  are  typical 
of  such  purely  Roman  structures  as  the  little  theatre 
at  Pompeii.  But  the  absolute  separation  of  the 
"skene,"  or  stage-building,  from  the  auditorium,  is 
purely  Greek;  and  the  stage-wall  is  decorated  in  the 
Greek  fashion  with  a  single  series  of  columns  in- 
stead of  the  over-elaborate  Roman  system  of  double 
or  triple  rows. 

The  orchestra  circle  is  six  feet  below  the  stage 
level;  and  above  it  on  the  auditorium  side  are 
twelve  broad  steps,  each  six  inches  above  the  other, 
on  which  sixteen  hundred  chairs  are  placed  at  times 
of  performance.  Above  them,  and  on  the  level  of 
the  stage  floor,  is  the  diazoma,  a  wide  aisle  with 
a  wall  at  the  back,  which  separates  the  "pit"  of  the 
theatre  from  the  upper  auditorium.  There  are 
nineteen  tiers  of  seats  in  the  upper  portion,  rising 
at  a  sharp  angle  almost  to  the  height  of  the  top  of 
the  stage-wall.  The  upper  section  is  divided  into 
ten  "wedges"  by  eleven  aisles  up-and-down.  It  has 
a  seating  capacity  of  more  than  four  thousand,  so 
that  with  the  chairs  on  the  steps  below  the  diazoma 
and  those  which  are  often  placed  in  the  orchestra 
circle,  a  total  of  six  thousand  or  more  people  can 
be  accommodated.  At  university  assemblies  and 
lectures  nearly  ten  thousand  people  occasionally 


THE  HEARST  GREEK  THEATRE  AT  BERKELEY.  ABOVE,  THE  THEA- 
TRE IS  SEEN  IN  ITS  PRESENT  CONDITION.  BELOW  IS  THE  ARCHI- 
TECT'S DRAWING  OF  THE  STRUCTURE  AS  IT  WILL  APPEAR  WHEN 

COMPLETED. 
[JOHN   GALEN   HOWARD,   ARCHITECT] 


THE  MODERN  GREEK  33 

gather,  some  being  allowed  to  stand  at  the  entrances 
and  above  the  highest  tier  of  seats,  and  additional 
chairs  being  placed  on  the  immense  stage. 

The  stage  building  has  a  cement  floor  one  hundred 
and  thirty-three  feet  long  by  twenty-eight  feet  deep. 
At  the  back  and  at  each  end  there  rises  a  massive 
wall,  more  than  forty  feet  high,  ornamented  with  a 
beautiful  design  of  Doric  columns  and  classic  cor- 
nice. This  wall  is  broken  only  by  five  doorways, 
for  the  actors'  entrances  and  exits,  three  at  the  back 
and  one  at  each  side.  The  total  effect  of  the 
"skene,"  with  its  spaciousness  and  almost  severe 
beauty,  is  singularly  impressive. 

At  present  the  theatre  is  built  entirely  of  concrete 
and  cement.  In  time,  however,  the  donor  plans  to 
finish  the  structure  in  marble.  The  architect's 
sketch  of  the  finished  building  shows  a  further  deco- 
ration of  the  stage-wall  with  bas-relief  statues,  the 
addition  of  walls  at  the  sides  of  the  stage  building, 
and  the  addition  of  a  portico  at  the  top  of  the  audi- 
torium— a  feature  common  in  the  finer  Roman 
theatres.  The  theatre  is  so  beautiful  at  present, 
and  seems  so  complete,  that  one  who  has  not  seen 
the  ultimate  plan  never  guesses  that  the  structure  is 
not  finished.  And  yet  the  plan  indicates  a  subtler 
architectural  beauty  and  a  pervading  sense  of  gran- 
deur that  will  be  notable  additions. 


34  THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

The  Hearst  Greek  Theatre  was  not  built  as  an 
archaeological  curiosity.  It  was  the  outgrowth  of 
a  very  definite  need.  For  a  decade  before  its  con- 
struction an  annual  student  play  had  been  produced 
in  the  natural  amphitheatre  which  the  classic  struc- 
ture now  fills,  and  all  the  student  activities  had  out- 
grown the  facilities  at  hand.  The  theatre  was 
opened  in  1903,  when  a  three-days'  dramatic  festi- 
val was  held,  with  the  dedicatory  exercises  and  the 
production  in  Greek  of  Aristophanes'  "The  Birds" 
on  the  first  day,  a  production  of  "Twelfth  Night" 
under  the  direction  of  Ben  Greet  on  the  second,  and 
a  production  of  Racine's  "Phedre"  in  French  on  the 
third.  Since  that  time  there  has  been  a  notable 
series  of  professional  and  amateur  productions, 
every  season  adding  to  the  list  of  masterpieces  that 
have  been  presented  and  to  the  list  of  noted  actors 
who  have  appeared. 

Perhaps  the  most  nearly  perfect  productions  have 
been  the  revivals  by  Margaret  Anglin  of  Sophocles' 
"Antigone"  and  "Electra."  Miss  Anglin  accepted 
frankly  the  conventions  which  the  immensity  of  the 
stage  and  the  lack  of  a  curtain  imposed;  she  tri- 
umphed by  fitting  the  play  to  the  stage,  instead  of 
attempting  futilely  to  bring  the  setting  into  con- 
formity with  what  is  commonly  considered  modern 
stage  art.  When  Maude  Adams  produced  "As  You 


THE  MODERN  GREEK  35 

Like  It,"  she  had  the  entire  stage  hidden  by  a  trans- 
planted forest  and  thousands  of  yards  of  blue 
cheesecloth,  the  action  taking  place  in  the  orchestra 
pit  before  the  stage.  The  performance  under  the 
night  sky  with  Miss  Adams  in  the  stellar  role  was 
necessarily  charming,  but  of  course  it  gained  nothing 
from  the  hidden  beauty  of  the  theatre  itself.  Of 
other  professional  productions,  Maude  Adams' 
"L'Aiglon"  and  Sarah  Bernhardt's  "Phedre"  de- 
serve special  mention.  The  English  Club  of  the 
University  has  successfully  revived  a  number  of  old 
plays:  translations  of  Schiller's  "Maria  Stuart,"  and 
Ibsen's  "The  Vikings  at  Helgeland,"  and  a  spec- 
tacular production  of  "The  Little  Clay  Cart,"  from 
the  Sanskrit;  and  of  English  drama,  among  others, 
"Abraham  and  Isaac,"  "Thersytes,"  Dekker's 
"Shoemaker's  Holiday,"  Shakespeare's  "Merry 
Wives  of  Windsor"  and  "The  Winter's  Tale," 
Henry  Van  Dyke's  "The  House  of  Rimmon," 
Shaw's  "Csesar  and  Cleopatra,"  and  Stephen  Phil- 
lips' "Nero"  and  "Paolo  and  Francesca."  Nat- 
urally the  Greek  department  at  the  University  has 
taken  advantage  of  the  unique  opportunity  to  produce 
Greek  drama  adequately  and  has  brought  forth 
Sophocles'  "Ajax,"  ^schylus'  "Eumenides,"  and 
Aristophanes'  "The  Birds,"  in  Greek;  and  in  Eng- 
lish Sophocles'  "QEdipus  Tyrannus."  There  have 


36  THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

been  also  a  number  of  French  and  German  plays, 
dramatic  festivals,  students'  class  plays,  and  produc- 
tions by  outside  amateur  and  semi-professional  com- 
panies. Altogether  the  range  of  material  presented 
has  been  remarkably  wide,  and  the  theatre  propor- 
tionately valuable  in  teaching  the  university  com- 
munity and  the  public  how  much  more  there  is  to 
dramatic  art  than  the  types  of  play  seen  in  the  com- 
mercial theatres. 

The  first  of  the  California  theatres  of  the  Greek 
or  architectural  type  was  built  under  the  direction 
of  Madame  Katherine  Tingley  in  the  grounds  of  the 
International  Theosophical  Headquarters  at  Point 
Loma,  in  1901.  Following,  perhaps,  an  old  tradi- 
tion that  the  ancient  Greek  theatres  were  purposely 
built  with  an  outlook  over  the  sea,  the  auditorium 
was  hollowed  out  of  a  hillside  facing  the  open 
ocean.  There  are  eleven  semi-circular  tiers  of  seats, 
accommodating  twenty-five  hundred  people,  and 
from  these  the  spectators  look  across  the  stage,  with 
its  floor  of  tessellated  pavement,  to  a  chaste  little 
temple  in  pure  Greek  architecture,  and  beyond  that 
to  the  deep  blue  sky  and  the  deep  blue  waters  of  the 
Pacific.  The  stage  stands  at  the  head  of  a  precipi-. 
tous  canyon,  through  which  a  path  winds  up,  allow- 
ing the  players  to  reach  the  temple  unseen  by  the 
audience.  Although  the  theatre  does  not  conform 


THE  GREEK  THEATRE  AT  POINT  LOMA,  CALIFORNIA.     THE  LOWER 

VIEW  SUGGESTS  THE  BEAUTY  OF  THE  OUTLOOK  OVER  THE  PACIFIC. 

[PHOTOGRAPHS  COPYRIGHT  BY  KATHERINE  TINGLEY] 


THE  MODERN  GREEK  37 

to  Greek  ideas  of  theatre-building,  it  achieves  to  a 
remarkable  degree  the  beauty  that  is  customarily 
considered  Gr'eek.  Certainly  no  theatre  in  ancient 
Greece  ever  had  a  greater  loveliness,  or  a  more 
idyllic  background.  As  one  comes  to  it  on  its  preci- 
pice above  the  sea,  it  seems  to  nestle  like  some 
gleaming  white  jewel  in  a  setting  fashioned  with 
perfect  artistry. 

The  plays  at  the  theatre,  too,  have  been  perme- 
ated by  the  Greek  spirit.  One  of  the  earliest 
dramas  presented  was  the  "Eumenides"  of  -^Eschy- 
lus,  which  Madame  Tingley  had  earlier  revived  in 
New  York.  Recently  the  productions  have  been 
less  dependent  upon  the  texts  of  the  Greek  authors, 
being  in  effect  modern  compositions  informed  with 
the  antique  spirit.  Indeed,  there  has  grown  up  here 
what  is  in  some  sense  a  new  art  form,  a  sort  of 
decorative  drama  that  is  more  dependent  upon  the 
visual  beauty  of  costumes,  natural  setting,  grouping 
and  dancing,  and  upon  incidental  poetry,  than  upon 
sustained  emotional  appeal.  Madame  Tingley  per- 
sonally directs  the  productions  in  the  theatre;  and 
she  is  carrying  out  her  ideal  of  dramatic  art  by 
clothing  the  action  in  physical  beauty,  and  at  the 
same  time  shaping  the  development  of  the  story 
so  that  the  whole  will  prove  in  some  measure  a 
spiritual  revelation.  Several  critics  have  testified 


38  THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

to  the  symbolic  effectiveness  and  unique  decorative 
quality  of  "The  Aroma  of  Athens,"  the  first  produc- 
tion at  which  the  general  public  was  admitted.  And 
every  one  who  has  been  in  the  theatre  has  remarked 
on  the  idyllic  beauty  of  the  stage  and  background. 

At  Cranbrook,  the  country  estate  of  Mr.  George 
G.  Booth,  near  Detroit,  Michigan,  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  of  modern  Greek  theatres  has  been  built. 
The  structure  is  unique  in  several  ways.  The  low 
auditorium  is  set  well  back  from  the  stage,  leaving 
an  unusually  large  orchestra.  The  raised  stage  is 
flanked  by  two  temple-like  structures,  which  may  be 
used  for  dressing-rooms  or  for  the  musicians.  At 
the  rear  of  the  stage  the  wall  joining  the  two  build- 
ings is  pierced  by  three  wide  entrances.  At  times 
of  performances,  if  the  play  demands  an  intimate 
atmosphere,  the  openings  are  curtained  and  the  pro- 
ducer can  then  obtain  those  subtler  effects  which  are 
characteristic  of  the  small  garden  theatre  stage.  At 
will,  however,  the  curtains  can  be  removed,  and  the 
audience  then  looks  through  the  openings,  across 
a  long  formal  pool,  to  a  second  stage  building  at 
the  rear.  On  this  larger  stage  the  director  can  pro- 
duce the  more  extensive,  pageant-like  scenes,  which 
depend  for  their  effectiveness  upon  moving  masses  of 
actors,  changing  colors,  and  distant  processionals. 

When  the  Cranbrook  Theatre  was  dedicated,  in 


THE    GREEK    THEATRE    AT    CRANBROOK,    MICHIGAN.      THIS     VIEW 
SHOWS  THE   UNIQUE   INNER  STAGE,   WITH   ITS   POOL  AND    LOGGIA. 


THE  MODERN  GREEK  39 

the  early  summer  of  1916,  with  a  masque  specially 
written  for  the  occasion  by  Sidney  Coe  Howard, 
every  possibility  of  the  structure  was  tested  by  the 
producer,  Sam  Hume.  Some  episodes  were  played 
on  the  fore-stage,  with  the  openings  curtained;  again 
the  processions  were  seen  through  the  doorways,  ap- 
proaching along  the  two  sides  of  the  pool;  and  at 
other  times  the  actors  utilized  the  wide  dancing- 
space  of  the  orchestra.  Mr.  Hume  planned  and 
installed  a  special  lighting  system,  and  he  added  to 
the  effects  it  made  possible,  by  beginning  the  masque 
in  early  twilight. 

The  architecture  of  the  Cranbrook  Theatre  fol- 
lows in  its  fundamental  forms  the  early  Greek  the- 
atres. But  the  raised  stage  is  Roman,  and  the  use 
of  the  pilasters  suggests  Renaissance  influence. 
The  pilasters  and  cornices,  together  with  the  two 
relief  panels  set  in  the  walls  of  the  stage  buildings, 
give  an  effect  of  richness  foreign  to  the  true  Greek 
theatre,  and  avoid  its  usual  appearance  of  austerity. 
The  whole  effect  has  a  loveliness  without  parallel 
in  the  existing  theatres  of  ancient  or  modern  times. 
The  structure  was  designed  by  Mr.  Booth  in  collabo- 
ration with  Marcus  R.  Burrowes,  an  architect  of 
Detroit. 

The  so-called  "Greek  Theatre"  at  Bakersfield, 
California,  follows  the  Roman  type  in  almost  every 


40  THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

structural  detail.  In  the  first  place,  it  is  built  on  the 
flat,  instead  of  being  hollowed  out  of  a  hillside,  as 
was  the  Greek  fashion;  and  the  "skene"  and  audi- 
torium are  joined  in  a  single  building.  The  audi- 
torium, too,  forms  only  a  semi-circle,  and  is  set 
close  to  the  stage,  as  was  the  custom  in  the  Roman 
theatres.  The  three  tiers  of  seats  and  the  terrace 
above  accommodate  only  a  few  hundred  spectators, 
although  an  upper  auditorium  could  easily  be  added. 
The  structure  is  in  effect  a  miniature  Roman  theatre, 
occupying  an  almost  unique  position  among  modern 
open-air  structures.  What  it  loses  in  the  sense  of 
majesty,  through  its  smallness,  it  gains  in  the  sense 
of  intimacy.  One  can  hardly  imagine  a  more 
charming  setting  for  poetic  drama,  and  especially 
for  those  amateur  performances  that  so  often  are 
too  slight  to  dominate  the  large  Greek  theatre  or 
indoor  theatre  stages,  and  yet  are  very  effective  in 
their  proper  atmosphere  on  a  miniature  stage  and 
before  a  miniature  auditorium.  The  openings  in 
the  stage-wall  at  the  back,  designed  by  the  architect 
to  be  filled  by  shrubs  and  hedges,  form  the  only 
drawback  of  the  theatre,  interfering  seriously  with 
the  acoustics.  The  mistake  is  corrected  to  some 
extent  by  hanging  heavy  curtains  during  the  times 
of  performance.  This  little  theatre  is  owned  by 


THE  MODERN  GREEK  41 

the  city,  and  is  used  by  schools,  musical  organiza- 
tions, and  amateur  dramatic  societies. 

The  open-air  theatre  at  Pomona  College,  Clare- 
mont,  California,  is  an  interesting  hybrid  form  in 
which  the  auditorium  is  of  the  classic  architectural 
type,  but  with  a  stage  background  of  the  nature  the- 
atre type.  The  auditorium  is  modelled  after  that  of 
the  Hearst  Greek  Theatre  at  Berkeley,  having  the 
same  arrangement  of  sunken  orchestra-circle,  low 
steps  for  chairs,  diazoma  on  the  level  of  the  stage 
floor,  and  more  sharply  rising  tiers  of  seats  above. 
The  one  noticeable  difference  is  that  tunnel  entrances 
are  brought  through  under  the  seats,  after  the  man- 
ner of  the  old  Roman  arenas.  The  stage  front  is 
a  concrete  wall,  but  for  the  floor  the  ground  has 
simply  been  levelled,  and  there  is  no  rear  stage-wall. 
The  background  is  simply  a  park-like  landscape  with 
lawn,  trees  and  shrubs.  For  pageants  and  masques 
the  advantages  of  this  natural  background  over  the 
architectural  one  at  the  Hearst  Greek  Theatre  are 
evident;  but  for  the  more  dramatic  sorts  of  play, 
that  demand  concentration  of  attention,  and  for 
the  various  lectures,  academic  exercises,  concerts, 
and  similar  activities  for  which  a  college  theatre  is 
continually  utilized,  the  structure  at  Berkeley  is 
incomparably  better. 

The  Pomona  theatre  would  seem  to  be  perfectly 


42  THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

fitted  to  that  sort  of  dramatic  masque  which  Amer- 
icans like  Thomas  Wood  Stevens,  Kenneth  Sawyer 
Goodman  and  Joseph  Lindon  Smith  have  done  so 
much  to  develop,  a  form  that  demands  a  flexible 
background  of  great  natural  beauty,  to  which  the 
rigid  architectural  wall  of  the  Greek  "skene"  is 
totally  unsuited.  But  anything  approaching  inten- 
sive drama,  and  anything  demanding  close  attention 
to  the  spoken  word  and  sequence  of  incident,  would 
lose  half  its  effectiveness  on  the  Pomona  stage,  be- 
cause there  is  no  sense  of  intimacy,  and  the  eye  is 
continually  invited  to  wander  from  the  fore-stage  to 
the  beautiful  bits  of  landscape  at  the  back.  A  study 
of  this  theatre  greatly  strengthens  the  impression 
that  no  open-air  playhouse  can  adequately  house 
both  the  very  dramatic  play  and  the  pageant,  both 
Greek  tragedy  and  American  masque;  the  builders 
must  choose  the  general  kind  of  production  to  be 
given,  and  then  build  for  that.* 

For  Garfield  Park,  Chicago,  a  theatre  has  been 
planned    specifically    for   pageant-like    productions, 

*  Since  this  book  was  written  I  have  visited  Forest  Park  Theatre 
at  St.  Louis,  which  also  combines  a  nature  stage  with  an  architec- 
tural auditorium.  The  stage  seems  well-equipped  for  pageant 
production  and  other  spectacular  entertainment.  But  as  I  looked 
at  the  playhouse,  the  truth  that  struck  me  most  forcibly  was  this: 
if  a  theatre  is  to  be  in  any  degree  architectural,  a  real  architect 
should  prepare  the  design.  The  auditorium  at  Forest  Park  appears 
to  have  been  laid  out  by  an  engineer — or  perhaps  by  a  plumber. 
It  is  a  thing  of  concrete  steps  and  iron  piping — utterly  devoid  of 
architectural  beauty,  and  altogether  disillusioning.  Photographs 


ABOVE,  THE  STAGE  OF  THE  GREEK  THEATRE  AT  POMONA,  CALIFOR- 
NIA. HERE  AN  AUDITORIUM  OF  THE  CLASSIC  ARCHITECTURAL 
TYPE  IS  COMBINED  WITH  A  NATURE-THEATRE  STAGE.  BELOW, 
THE  GREEK  THEATRE  AT  BAKERSFIELD,  CALIFORNIA.  THIS  IS  A 
FREE  ADAPTATION  OF  ROMAN  RATHER  THAN  GREEK  FORMS. 

[LEWIS  p.  HOBART,  ARCHITECT] 


THE  MODERN  GREEK  43 

and  like  the  Pomona  theatre  it  is  to  have  no  rear 
stage-wall.  But  here  the  stage  is  framed  by  high 
pillars,  two  on  each  side,  giving  a  formal  touch  and 
serving  to  concentrate  sight  lines  on  the  centre  of 
the  stage.  These  pillars,  too,  shield  lights  to  be 
used  during  performances  at  night. 

Another  theatre  of  great  size,  but  in  pure  classic 
style,  is  to  be  built  in  one  of  the  parks  at  Los 
Angeles,  California.  The  plans  call  for  the  im- 
mediate building  of  an  auditorium  seating  ten  thou- 
sand spectators,  with  provision  for  an  eventual  addi- 
tion to  seat  thirty  thousand  more.  The  "skene" 
will  be  similar  to  that  of  the  Hearst  Greek  Theatre 
and  will  be  decorated  with  Ionic  columns,  but  the 
stage  floor  will  be  two  hundred  feet  long  and  fifty 
feet  deep. 

Of  the  modern  open-air  theatres  of  purely  archi- 
tectural design  in  Europe,  by  far  the  most  interesting 
is  the  Arena  Goldoni  at  Florence,  Italy.  This  is  a 
curious  combination  of  the  Roman  theatre  and  the 
arena  types.  It  is  like  half  of  an  arena  with  a 
raised  stage  opposite  the  seats.  The  stage  is  open 
at  the  front,  but  is  roofed.  The  level  floor  below 
the  stage,  the  arena  itself  in  a  narrower  sense,  is 

of  the  open-air  theatre  at  Anoka,  Minnesota,  indicate  a  similar 
lack  of  decorative  values.  If  a  theatre  is  to  depart  at  all  from 
the  pure  nature-theatre  type,  the  designer  should  be  competent 
to  add  that  legitimate  attractiveness  with  which  the  architect  is 
supposed  to  endow  all  his  creations. 


44 


THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 


A  ENTRANCE  .. 

B    ANTEROOM 

C    ARENA 

D   SCAUNATA 

E    LOGGIA 

F    GALLERY 

G   CARPENTERS  ROOMS 

H  WOODCARVtRS  R.JOMS 

I    OH  {CE 

J    LIBRAW 

£}  STORE  ROOMS 


M  PHOTOCK!  ROOM 
N  STAdC 

O  MECHANICS  SHOP 
P    COVRTYARO 

Q  PASSAGES 

1^  STAGE 

S    STVDIO 

T  CO\'RT 

U  PWNTINfr  OFFICE 


"P    ROOMS   OV£ft 


stage 


of  the  Arena  Goldoni,  showing  the  unique  arrangement  of 
,  "arena,"  and  auditorium.  This  is  one  of  the  few  buildings 
in  which  an  open-air  theatre  is  combined  with  studios,  workshops 
and  offices — a  type  that  American  "experimental  theatre"  groups 
can  study  to  advantage. 


THE  MODERN  GREEK  45 

larger  than  the  stage,  and  may  be  used  by  the  actors 
if  desired,  or  may  be  added  to  the  seating  space. 
The  auditorium  proper  is  comparatively  small,  con- 
sisting of  seven  rising  tiers  of  stone  seats.  Back 
of  these  there  is  a  portico  or  loggia,  and  above  that 
a  small  gallery  where  a  number  of  chairs  can  be 
placed.  Fifteen  hundred  spectators  can  easily  be 
accommodated.  A  certain  quiet  charm  is  remarked 
by  all  visitors  to  the  theatre.  A  recent  writer  has 
said:  "The  two  immediate  impressions  which  one 
receives  on  entering  the  building  are  its  unexpected- 
ness and  its  beauty.  On  coming  in  from  the  nar- 
row Florentine  street  the  first  impression  created  is 
one  of  exquisite  surprise,  of  having  discovered  some 
beautiful  secret  thing.  The  next  impression  is  of 
a  profound  peace,  due  partly  to  a  certain  quietness 
and  dignity  in  the  architecture,  partly  to  the  silence, 
which,  for  all  the  keen  and  varied  activities  of  the 
many  workers,  reigns  over  the  whole." 

The  Arena  Goldoni  stands  on  the  site  of  an 
ancient  convent  and  is  rich  in  historic  associations. 
It  was  built  in  1818,  as  part  of  an  elaborate  group 
of  buildings,  including  ball-rooms,  a  closed  theatre 
and  billiard  halls,  designed  by  an  ambitious  Floren- 
tine to  offer  "decent  diversions  for  every  season  of 
the  year."  The  diversions  in  the  open-air  theatre 
at  this  time,  however,  seem  to  have  been  more  riot- 


46  THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

ous  than  dignified,  for  there  are  well-founded  stories 
of  official  intervention  at  certain  of  the  gatherings. 
Recently  the  Arena  has  passed  into  the  hands  of 
Gordon  Craig  and  his  associates,  and  it  is  here  that 
the  School  for  the  Art  of  the  Theatre,  of  which 
Craig  dreamed  so  lovingly  and  which  he  planned 
so  long,  has  finally  been  established.  Nowhere 
could  there  be  found  an  atmosphere  more  inspiring 
for  the  work  of  dramatic  experimenters  than  in 
this  charming  open-air  structure  that  still  retains 
something  of  the  cloistered  silence  of  convent  days. 
Similar  theatres  built  during  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury exist  elsewhere  in  Italy,  but  whatever  may  have 
been  the  development  of  dramatic  art  that  called 
them  into  being,  none  of  them  except  the  Arena 
Goldoni  is  now  notable  for  its  activities. 

The  only  modern  European  theatre  that  follows 
closely  the  Greek  traditions  is  that  at  Bradfield  in 
England.  Here  the  auditorium  forms  considerably 
more  than  a  half-circle,  and  the  orchestra  pit  is  a 
complete  circle  with  an  altar  in  the  centre,  after  the 
Greek  fashion.  The  stage  building  is  an  ingenious 
arrangement  of  Greek  motives,  but  in  a  form  that 
has  no  parallel  in  the  classic  theatres.  The  stage 
is  in  effect  a  covered  porch,  with  the  conventional 
five  doorways  for  entrances  and  exits.  While  the 
building  loses  much  of  the  dignity  and  spacious- 


A  CORNER  OF  THE  ARENA  GOLDONI,  AT  FLORENCE,  ITALY,  AS  SEEN 

FROM    THE    STAGE. 


THE  MODERN  GREEK  47 

ness  of  the  classic  theatres,  this  recessed  porch  would 
doubtless  serve  to  frame  the  action  and  to  concen- 
trate the  interest  of  the  audience  better  than  the 
more  open  Greek  stage.  The  whole  theatre  is  sur- 
rounded by  masses  of  foliage,  which  not  only  in- 
crease the  sense  of  shelter  but  add  greatly  to  the 
beauty  of  the  place. 

The  finest  productions  at  the  theatre  have  been 
the  classic  revivals  by  Granville  Barker,  who  has 
pointed  the  way  to  so  many  innovations  in  the 
English  theatre.  Each  year  the  students  of  Brad- 
field  College  produce  in  the  original  tongue  one  of 
the  masterpieces  of  Greek  drama;  and  the  five  per- 
formances of  each,  given  during  a  week  in  June,  are 
attended  by  people  from  all  parts  of  England.  The 
auditorium,  which  is  of  concrete,  seats  two  thou- 
sand, but  only  about  fourteen  hundred  spectators 
have  a  clear  view  of  the  stage.  Tickets  are  not 
sold  for  the  poorer  seats — a  fact  that  may  be  com- 
mended to  the  usual  commercial  managers  for 
thoughtful  consideration.  The  Bradfield  theatre  is 
sometimes  known  as  the  "Chalk-cliff  Theatre,"  be- 
cause it  was  hollowed  out  of  an  old  chalk-pit. 

At  Beziers,  in  France,  there  is  a  so-called  "arena- 
theatre,"  built  in  imitation  partly  of  the  Greek  the- 
atre and  partly  of  the  Roman  amphitheatre,  which 
is  larger  than  any  other  modern  out-door  playhouse 


48  THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

(barring  such  temporary  arrangements  as  the  St. 
Louis  pageant  theatre).  But  the  structure  is  only 
of  wood,  and  it  has  been  given  up  chiefly  to  spectacle 
and  opera,  with  elaborate  and  atrocious  imitations 
of  indoor-stage  settings. 

Of  modern  structures  modelled  after  the  ancient 
stadion,  circus  and  amphitheatre  (or  arena),  there 
are  many,  such  as  the  bull-rings  of  Spain  and  the 
athletic  stadia  throughout  the  world;  but  these 
buildings  have  very  little  to  do  with  dramatic  art. 
At  the  Harvard  Stadium  in  Cambridge  notable  pro- 
ductions have  been  staged,  as  well  as  in  the  Yale 
Bowl  and  at  the  stadion  of  the  College  of  the  City 
of  New  York.  But  while  the  spectacular  effects 
were  fine,  the  acoustic  properties  of  the  structures 
are  so  poor  that  a  great  deal  of  the  true  dramatic 
element  was  lost.  In  the  stadion  at  Tacoma,  Wash- 
ington, an  annual  dramatic  festival  is  held,  but  very 
wisely  the  production  is  made  rather  a  pageant  than 
a  play. 

Of  the  contemporary  Italian  outdoor  theatres, 
or  "arenas"  as  they  are  often  termed,  practically 
all  are  negligible  both  architecturally  and  as  con- 
tributing to  dramatic  art.  Many  are  simply  indoor 
theatres  with  the  auditorium  roofs  lifted,  with  stages 
that  are  given  over  to  every  sophisticated  device 
that  modern  "scenic  artists"  and  modern  chorus- 


THE   ORCHESTRA  AND   STAGE   OF  THE   GREEK  THEATRE 
AT   BRADFIELD,   ENGLAND. 


THE  MODERN  GREEK  49 

girls  can  invent.  Others  have  rustic  stages — but 
these  usually  approximate  the  German  beer-garden 
type,  which,  indeed,  is  not  unknown  in  the  amuse- 
ment parks  on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic. 

A  word  may  profitably  be  said  regarding  the 
type  of  drama  suited  to  the  modern  Greek  theatre 
stage.  In  the  first  place  the  lack  of  a  curtain  makes 
necessary  the  entrance  and  exit  of  all  the  actors  in 
full  sight  of  the  audience.  In  the  second  place 
there  can  be  no  realistic  scenery,  so  that  the  mod- 
ern play  that  is  built  with  large  dependence  upon 
that  artificial  feature  always  fails  on  the  bare  classic 
stage.  Two  types  of  plays  are  finely  suited  to  such 
theatres:  first,  the  Greek  tragedies,  for  nowhere 
else  can  they  be  so  well  revived  with  a  background 
reflecting  in  its  dignified  architecture  the  noble 
beauty  of  the  drama  itself;  and  second,  that  sort  of 
extensive  play  which  demands  a  certain  concentra- 
tion of  attention  and  yet  has  place  for  pageant-like 
processions  and  mob-scenes.  Entirely  out  of  place 
here  are  the  intensive  plays  that  demand  an  intimate 
interior  atmosphere,  as  well  as  the  extensive 
pageants  and  masques  that  demand  all  outdoors  for 
their  setting.  But  the  two  intermediate  types,  the 
purely  dramatic  play  that  is  clean-cut  and  gripping 
enough  to  dominate  the  large  stage,  and  the  play 


50  THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

that  is  built  against  a  background  of  large  masses 
of  actors,  here  find  their  finest  expression. 

Because  the  theatre  of  classic  form  is  thus  better 
fitted  than  any  other  to  house  certain  sorts  of  drama, 
and  because  no  finer  form  of  open-air  assembly  hall 
has  ever  been  invented  for  lectures  and  concerts 
and  meetings,  doubtless  the  Greek  or  Roman  play- 
house will  continue  to  increase  in  numbers  on  univer- 
sity campuses  and  in  public  parks,  both  in  America 
and  in  the  rest  of  the  world. 


THE  MEDIEVAL  RELIGIOUS  THEATRE  AND  ITS 
SURVIVALS 

AFTER  the  decay  of  the  Roman  theatre,  the 
Western  world  was  barren  of  dramatic 
activity  for  many  centuries.  The  rebirth 
of  the  drama  came  in  the  elaboration  of  an  incident 
of  the  church  service,  probably  in  the  tenth  or 
eleventh  century.  The  middle  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury saw  this  activity  still  purely  liturgical  in  char- 
acter; but  the  following  fifty  years  witnessed  the 
development  of  the  Mystery  Play,  which  quickly 
made  its  way  out  of  the  church  into  the  open;  and 
by  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century  the  separa- 
tion of  the  dramatic  production  from  the  church 
service  was  complete,  and  outdoor  drama  was  firmly 
established  as  an  independent  expression  of  religious 
feeling. 

The  first  productions  out-of-doors  probably  were 
given  on  the  church  steps.  Although  the  auditorium 
was  not  all  the  audience  might  have  desired,  no  finer 
outdoor  stage  could  be  imagined  for  religious  plays. 

51 


52          THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

The  towering  church  facade  as  background  doubt- 
less intensified  the  dignity  and  spiritual  effectiveness 
of  the  production;  the  music  drifting  out  to  the 
audience  from  the  church  itself  must  have  been 
strangely  appealing;  and  doubtless  God  was  the 
more  convincing  when  he  came  on  the  stage  through 
the  church  doors.  Probably  it  was  the  form  of  this 
stage  on  the  church  steps  that  served  as  a  model  for 
the  platforms  later  erected  against  houses  or  in  the 
open  square,  with  the  people  crowding  around  on 
three  sides. 

The  Mystery  Play,  following  closely  the  scriptural 
stories  acceptable  to  the  church,  soon  gave  way  to 
the  Miracle  Play,  into  which  crept  gradually  apocry- 
phal stories  and  legends  of  the  saints,  and  which 
was  characterized  more  often  by  a  very  broad 
human  feeling  than  by  religious  fervor.  From  the 
time  when  the  Mystery  Play  left  the  church  steps 
to  the  time  when  the  Miracle  stage  became  a  set 
type,  there  is  little  direct  evidence  regarding  the 
detailed  form  of  the  mediaeval  theatre.  Doubtless 
it  went  through  many  changes,  although  always  it 
seems  to  have  been  of  wood,  and  usually  built  for 
a  single  cycle  of  performances,  to  be  torn  down  as 
soon  as  the  "season"  was  done.  There  is  extant 
a  description  of  a  theatre  built  at  Autun  in  1516, 
which  had  an  auditorium  similar  to  those  built  by 


THE  MEDIEVAL  RELIGIOUS         53 

the  Romans;  but  as  the  writer  remarks  that  there 
were  seats  for  eighty  thousand  people,  there  is  a 
reasonable  doubt  as  to  the  accuracy  of  his  state- 
ments. There  is  also  evidence  of  a  sort  that  a 
Mystery  was  produced  in  the  old  amphitheatre  at 
Bourges.  But  the  typical  auditorium  of  the 
mediaeval  theatre  is  only  a  thing  of  conjecture. 

Of  the  stages  on  which  the  Miracles  were  pro- 
duced, at  least  from  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury on,  there  is  more  knowledge.  In  France  these 
stages  took  a  set  form,  usually  being  raised  a  few 
feet,  and  having  at  the  back  representations  of  the 
various  "localities"  from  which  the  characters  were 
supposed  to  come,  or  which  they  were  to  occupy  dur- 
ing the  action.  Generally  these  localities  were  like 
boxes  or  booths,  built  either  directly  on  the  stage 
floor,  or  with  only  a  few  steps  to  lift  them  above  the 
common  level;  or  as  a  second  story,  in  which  case 
the  actors  in  them  were  raised  above  those  on  the 
stage  into  full  view  of  the  audience.  Some  of  the 
Miracle  Plays  called  for  as  many  as  twenty-four 
localities.  In  the  late  theatres  of  this  type  the  local- 
ities were  decorated  to  indicate  the  characters  to 
which  they  belonged,  one  being  for  the  Virgin  Mary, 
one  for  God,  and  so  on.  Invariably  the  two  local- 
ities at  the  ends  represented  Paradise  and  Hell,  the 
latter  usually  being  in  the  shape  of  a  dragon's  mouth. 


54 


THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 


The  well-known  engraving  of  the  setting  for  the 
Passion  Play  at  Valenciennes  in  1547  shows  a  raised 
stage  with  an  elaborate  series  of  localities  in  a 
curve  at  the  back.  Hell  is  formed  by  the  mouth  of 
a  ferocious-looking  dragon,  and  the  adjoining  Pur- 
gatory is  emitting  very  realistic  flames. 


Stage  of  the  Passion  Play  theatre  at  Valenciennes,  154.7. 

In  England  the  system  of  presenting  the  Miracles 
in  cycles,  each  guild  being  entrusted  with  a  certain 
incident  or  scene,  led  to  the  use  of  movable  instead 
of  stationary  stages.  The  guild  of  the  bakers, 
appropriately  presenting  "The  Last  Supper,"  could 
hardly  use  the  same  stage-car  as  the  barbers  pre- 
senting "The  Baptism  of  Jesus."  And  although 
one  stage  arrangement  might  do  for  the  fishmongers 
with  their  "Flood"  and  the  shipwrights  with  "The 
Building  of  the  Ark,"  something  different  would  be 


THE  MEDLEVAL  RELIGIOUS         55 

demanded  by  the  cooks  who  were  entrusted  with 
"The  Harrying  of  Hell" — because  "they  were  in  the 
habit  of  taking  things  out  of  the  fire."  Thus  each 
guild  prepared  a  stage-on-wheels  to  suit  its  own 
appropriate  part  of  the  cycle.  When  the  day  of 
performance  arrived,  into  the  open  space  where  the 
play  was  to  be  presented  was  wheeled  the  first 
"pageant-car,"  on  which  the  first  incident  or  act  was 
performed;  that  finished,  car  one  went  on  to  the 
next  "station,"  and  car  two  took  its  place, — and  so 
on,  until  the  whole  series  of  cars  (varying  from 
three  to  twenty-four)  had  formed  the  stage  at  each 
one  of  the  several  stations. 

The  cars  varied  widely  in  form  and  appointments. 
None  could  be  as  elaborate  as  the  French  stationary 
stages,  but  often  they  were  built  in  two  stories,  and 
many  of  them  showed  several  localities — "Hell- 
mouth"  being  a  characteristic  feature  now  as  before. 
Some  were  curtained  and  roofed,  while  others  were 
open  at  the  top  and  on  three  sides.  At  some  of  the 
stations  auxiliary  stages  were  built,  with  an  open 
middle  space  into  which  each  of  the  cars  in  turn 
was  drawn.  Similar  pageant-cars  were  utilized  in 
Spain  long  after  they  had  gone  out  of  use  in  Eng- 
land. Lope  de  Vega  wrote  four  hundred  "scenes," 
designed  for  production  out-of-doors  during  the  pro- 
cessions of  the  Bloody  Sacrament.  These  produc- 


56  THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

tions  were  forbidden  in  Spain  in  1765.  But  even 
to-day  there  are  survivals  of  the  pageant-car  play 
in  parts  of  Spain,  and  in  such  religious  processions 
as  that  of  the  Holy  Blood  at  Bruges. 

In  Cornwall  a  special  type  of  open-air  theatre 
developed  in  the  time  of  the  Miracle  Plays.  This 
was  in  the  form  of  a  low  amphitheatre,  somewhat 
like  our  present-day  athletic  fields,  with  a  few  tiers 
of  seats  built  on  heaped-up  earthen  banks  surround- 
ing the  "field"  or  "stage."  The  ruins  of  such  the- 
atres, or  "rounds"  as  they  are  sometimes  called,  are 
found  at  several  places  in  Cornwall,  the  best  known, 
and  one  of  the  best  preserved,  being  at  St.  Just,  near 
Penwith.  Edwin  Norris,  in  "The  Ancient  Cornish 
Drama,"  describes  the  structure  as  follows:  "It 
was  an  exact  circle  of  126  feet  diameter;  the  perpen- 
dicular height  of  the  bank,  from  the  area  within, 
now  seven  feet;  but  the  height  from  the  bottom  of 
the  ditch  without,  ten  feet  at  present,  formerly  more. 
The  seats  consist  of  six  steps,  fourteen  inches  wide 
and  one  foot  high,  with  one  on  the  top  of  all,  where 
the  rampart  is  about  seven  feet  wide.  .  .  .  The 
benches  are  of  stone."  Of  the  methods  of  produc- 
tion and  the  settings,  when  the  Miracle  Plays  were 
brought  to  the  "rounds,"  there  is  no  authentic  evi- 
dence. 

It  was  not  a  far  jump  from  the  pageant-car  to  the 


THE  MEDIEVAL  RELIGIOUS         57 

temporary  platform  stage  that  was  used  for  the 
Moralities  and  early  secular  plays  in  England. 
Nor  was  it  a  far  jump  from  that  again  to  the  stage 
of  the  early  Elizabethan  playhouse.  The  first  real 
English  theatres  had  a  double  origin.  When  the 
drama  had  in  succession  gone  out  of  the  hands  of 
the  churchmen  and  then  out  of  the  hands  of  the 
guilds,  it  was  carried  on  by  companies  of  strolling 
actors.  These  bands  were  wont  to  set  up  their 
temporary  platforms  in  the  inn  courtyards.  The 
encircling  galleries  formed  excellent  boxes  for  the 
nobles  of  the  audience,  while  the  ground  before  the 
stage  did  very  well  for  the  common  people.  The 
Elizabethan  theatre  was  evolved  from  this  inn-court 
arrangement  and  from  the  "bear-ring,"  a  sort  of 
arena  or  amphitheatre  in  which  the  people  of  the 
time  were  accustomed  to  enjoy  bear-baiting,  cock- 
fighting  and  similar  edifying  exhibitions.  James 
Burbage  built  the  first  playhouse,  after  this  pattern, 
and  "The  Theatre,"  "The  Swan,"  "The  Rose,"  and 
the  others,  were  simply  variations  of  the  one  type. 
Thus  Shakespeare  wrote  for  a  theatre  with  a  high 
round  exterior  wall,  with  a  circle  of  roofed  boxes, 
tier  over  tier,  with  a  "pit"  open  to  the  sky,  where 
the  "groundlings"  sat,  and  with  a  stage  partly  cov- 
ered and  partly  open.  How  far  the  theatre  de- 
veloped toward  the  pure  indoor  type  during  the 


Contemporary  sketch  of  an  Elizabethan  theatre.  This  is  a  rough 
diagram  of  the  Swan  Theatre  in  London,  and  <was  made  by  a 
Dutch  scholar,  probably  from  second-hand  evidence.  It  illus- 
trates, nevertheless,  the  typical  form  of  the  playhouse  in  Shake- 
speare's time. 


THE  MEDIEVAL  RELIGIOUS         59 

period  of  Shakespearian  "first  nights"  is  uncertain. 
But  before  the  great  poet-dramatist's  death,  no 
doubt,  the  typical  playhouse  had  most  of  the  char- 
acteristics of  the  indoor  stage  of  to-day,  and  very 
little  of  the  airiness  and  freedom  and  openness  that 
theretofore  had  persisted  from  the  time  of  the 
Greeks.  Already  everything  pointed  indoors—- 
and with  Shakespeare's  death  the  breath  of  the  out- 
of-doors  went  out  of  English  drama. 

Among  the  open-air  theatres  of  to-day  there  is 
no  survival  of  the  Elizabethan  or  Renaissance  play- 
house. The  modern  drama  and  the  modern  audi- 
ence demand  either  four  close  walls  carefully  roofed 
over,  so  that  no  nuance  of  meaning  and  no  subtle 
facial  expression  may  be  lost,  or  else  all  out-of-doors 
— and  there  is  no  place  for  the  intermediate  type. 
But  of  the  Mystery  or  Miracle  theatre  there  is  one 
very  close  parallel,  and  a  very  notable  one:  the 
Ober-Ammergau  Passion  Play  Theatre. 

Most  of  the  writers  about  the  Ober-Ammergau 
Passion  Play  insist  that  it  is  not  a  survival  of  the 
mediaeval  religious  drama,  but  a  separate  growth; 
and  it  is  well-known  that  the  current  series  of  pro- 
ductions goes  back  only  to  1633,  when  the  people 
of  the  village,  for  deliverance  from  a  plague,  vowed 
to  present  the  Passion  of  Jesus  every  tenth  year. 
Others,  however,  claim  to  have  found  evidence  of 


60          THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

earlier  dramatic  activity  of  this  sort.  The  point 
need  not  be  debated.  But  one  who  has  studied  the 
mediaeval  stage  need  only  see  the  Ober-Ammergau 
theatre  to  be  convinced  that,  whether  it  is  survival 
or  reversion,  it  is  unmistakably  of  the  Miracle  Play 
type.  The  existence  of  the  several  "localities"  is 
the  most  striking  of  the  characteristic  features.  For 
here  on  one  side  of  the  stage  are  Annas'  palace  and 
a  street  in  Jerusalem,  and  on  the  other  side  a  street 
and  Pilate's  house,  while  in  the  centre  is  the  cur- 
tained proscenium  arch  behind  which  the  tableaus 
are  presented.  The  general  form  of  the  stage,  too, 
raised  a  few  feet  above  the  ground,  and  with  the 
curved  architectural  background,  is  remarkably  like 
that  of  the  typical  mediaeval  stage. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  describe  the  play  here.  Its 
fame  has  already  gone  out  to  every  corner  of  the 
world.  But  it  is  worth  while  to  consider  the  rela- 
tion between  the  play  and  the  outdoor  setting.  One 
wonders  whether  this  drama  that  is  so  simple  and 
so  spiritual,  and  that  is  such  a  spontaneous  expres- 
sion of  the  religious  faith  of  the  people,  could  be 
adequately  given  on  a  roofed-in  stage.  The  whole 
spirit  of  it  is  so  much  the  spirit  of  the  open-air, 
and  the  sky  overhead  and  the  mountains  in  the  back- 
ground are  so  much  a  part  of  the  atmosphere  of  the 
action,  that  any  other  setting  would  be  not  only 


THE  STAGE  OF  THE  PASSION  PLAY  THEATRE   AT  OBER-AMMERGAU. 


THE  MEDIEVAL  RELIGIOUS         61 

unnatural,  but  actually  destructive  to  the  entire  effec- 
tiveness of  the  play.  The  spirit  of  reverence  that 
suffuses  the  whole  production,  the  unaffected  earnest- 
ness of  the  villagers,  the  solemn  sense  of  religious 
worship — all  these  would  be  lost  if  the  stage  were 
taken  indoors  in  the  modern  fashion.  Unthinking 
visitors  to  Ober-Ammergau,  complaining  that  it 
rained  during  the  performance  and  that  there  was 
no  shelter, — as  if  the  play  were  designed  primarily 
for  them — brought  about  the  roofing  of  the  audi- 
torium for  the  performance  of  1900.  It  compels 
one  to  realize  how  utterly  the  contemporary  theatre 
makes  the  outward  pleasing  of  the  audience  its  first 
and  dominating  concern.  The  drama  that  exists 
for  art  or  religion  or  the  other  great  moving  forces 
of  life  survives  only  in  such  simple,  spontaneous 
productions  as  this  one  in  an  out-of-the-way  moun- 
tain village.  And  even  here  a  partial  concession 
was  made,  in  the  covering  of  the  seats — although  it 
is  to  be  hoped  that  the  villagers  will  always  cling  to 
their  open  stage. 

The  theatre  at  Ober-Ammergau  is  comparatively 
large,  being  250  feet  long  by  140  feet  wide;  the 
total  seating  capacity  is  about  4500,  and  the  benches 
are  of  wood.  The  extreme  stage  depth  is  sixty 
feet.  At  the  ends  of  the  stage  are  the  two 
"palaces,"  and  next  to  these  the  streets  of  Jerusalem; 


62  THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

and  in  the  centre  is  the  curtained  inner  stage  where 
the  tableaus  are  presented.  The  realistic  painted 
back-drops  used  in  these  tableaus  form  the  one  mod- 
ern note  in  the  staging. 

Of  the  other  modern  Passion  Plays  none  is  so 
notable  as  that  at  Ober-Ammergau,  as  regards  either 
the  production  or  the  theatre.  The  most  important 
ones  are  found  in  the  villages  of  Southern  Germany 
and  the  Tyrol.  That  given  at  a  village  near  Inns- 
bruck is  said  to  be  a  worthy  rival  of  the  Ober- 
Ammergau  production,  and  is  quite  as  old.  The 
Passion  Play  at  Selzach,  in  Switzerland,  is  a  modern 
imitation,  and  is  not  yet  characterized  by  the  sim- 
plicity and  reverence  which  tradition  has  imparted 
to  the  Ober-Ammergau  villagers. 

One  might  go  farther  afield  and  find  parallels  to 
the  mediaeval  religious  drama  in  the  devotional  fes- 
tivals of  other  Christian  countries,  and  especially  in 
the  nativity  plays  that  are  acted  here  and  there 
throughout  the  Western  world.  In  non-Christian 
countries,  too,  there  are  processionals  and  dramatic 
episodes  that  are  strangely  like  those  of  the  old  and 
modern  Christian  church.  The  religious  drama  of 
Thibet,  and  the  ceremonial  drama  of  Japan  are 
typical  examples.  But  although  most  of  these  activ- 
ities find  their  natural  setting  out-of-doors,  there  is 
little  to  record  about  open-air  theatres  built  for 


THE  MEDIEVAL  RELIGIOUS         63 

them.*  For  the  present  one  may  only  hope  that 
the  Ober-Ammergau  theatre  will  long  survive,  to 
remind  men  that  once  the  church  and  the  theatre 
united  to  give  dramatic  expression  to  man's  innate 
spirit  of  worship.  And  one  may  well  wonder 
whether  religion  will  ever  again  give  rise  to  a  form 
of  drama  so  spontaneous  and  so  genuine  that  it  will 
naturally  find  its  setting  under  the  open  sky. 


*  It  is  said  that  the  Japanese  No-dramas  were  originally  played 
out-of-doors,  but  there  is  no  available  evidence  in  English  regard- 
ing the  form  of  the  theatres  or  the  date  of  bringing  the  productions 
indoors.  In  the  modern  enclosed  No-theatres  the  stage  has  an 
ornamental  roof  (below  the  regular  theatre  roof),  which  is  said 
to  be  a  survival  from  the  old  open-air  structure. 


THE  NATURE  THEATRE 

OF   all    the    types    of   open-air   theatre,    the 
nature   theatre    is    the    one   that   has   the 
maximum  of  openness  and  natural  beauty. 
It  is  the  closest  to  the  heart  of  the  out-of-doors,  and 
in  it  Nature  brings  her  loveliness  most  effectively 
to  the  aid  of  art. 

Unlike  the  Greek  and  Roman  theatres,  the  na- 
ture theatre  has  no  masonry  bowl  or  architectural 
stage.  Unlike  the  garden  theatre,  it  has  no  per- 
golas, or  clipped  hedge  "wings"  or  walled  stage 
platform.  While  it  usually  is  shaped  to  semblance 
of  theatre  form,  with  cleared  stage  and  rising  audi- 
torium, man's  manipulation  still  is  disguised  as  far 
as  possible.  Nature  is  trained  subtly  and  incon- 
spicuously to  the  uses  of  dramatic  art.  The  usual 
background  is  one  of  trees  and  shrubs,  though  some 
of  the  most  inspiring  nature  stages  have  vistas  of 
mountain,  sea  and  valley;  and  sometimes  rivers, 
brooks  and  lakes  actually  form  part  of  the  stage 
equipment. 

64 


THE  NATURE  THEATRE  65 

Of  the  European  nature  theatres  the  one  that  is 
most  important  in  dramatic  achievement,  and  one  of 
the  most  interesting  structurally,  is  the  Harz  Moun- 
tain Theatre  (Das  Harzer  Bergtheater)  at  Thale 
in  the  Harz  Mountains,  Germany.  It  was  built  in 
1903  by  Dr.  Ernst  Wachler,  one  of  the  pioneers  in 
the  open-air  theatre  movement  in  Europe.  Dr. 
Wachler  turned  to  the  production  of  drama  out-of- 
doors  not  only  to  escape  the  artificial  trapperies  and 
trickeries  of  the  indoor  theatre,  but  with  the  definite 
intention  of  contributing  to  the  development  of  a 
German  national  drama.  More  than  a  century  be- 
fore, Klopstock  had  pointed  out  the  possibilities  of 
such  a  venture,  and  Goethe  in  his  time  showed  more 
than  a  passing  interest  in  the  idea.  But  it  remained 
for  the  twentieth  century  to  see  a  German  open-air 
theatre  offering  an  extended  series  of  plays  each 
season,  with  the  avowed  purpose  of  expressing 
national  ideals  and  contributing  to  a  purely  national 
art. 

The  Germans  long  have  chafed  under  the  domina- 
tion of  French  and  Italian  ideals  in  the  world's  ac- 
cepted drama  and  in  the  accepted  form  of  theatre 
— and  with  reason.  The  Southern  ideal  in  dramatic 
art  was  of  a  highly  polished,  over-decorated,  and 
entirely  sophisticated  sort  of  play,  that  would  lend 
itself  easily  to  combination  with  "social"  functions; 


66  THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

and  the  Italian-French  theatre,  with  its  horse-shoe 
shape  that  divided  the  house  into  sections  of  good 
and  bad  seats,  with  its  boxes  for  the  be-jewelled  aris- 
tocracy, and  with  its  be-gilded  and  be-spangled 
ornamentation,  was  all  that  a  democratic  house  of 
art  should  not  be.  In  the  last  decade  Professor 
Littmann,  Professor  Kaufmann,  and  others  of  the 
Germans,  have  developed  a  form  of  theatre  build- 
ing, based  on  the  Greek  semi-circular  pattern,  with- 
out boxes,  and  dignified  in  decoration,  which  in  its 
simple  beauty  and  perfect  fitness  to  usfe  is  an  infinite 
improvement  on  the  French-Italian  type;  and 
Wachler  and  his  associates  have  attempted  in  a  simi- 
lar way  to  displace  the  old  artificial  drama  by  some- 
thing similarly  simple  and  beautiful.  The  Harz 
Mountain  Theatre  has  presented  an  unusual  number 
of  plays  by  contemporary  dramatists,  dealing  to  a 
great  extent  with  Teutonic  mythology  and  German 
life;  and  the  more  than  five  hundred  performances 
have  at  least  pointed  the  way  to  the  development  of 
a  new  sort  of  national  and  folk  drama.  The  Greek 
classics  have  been  revived  and  studied,  since  the 
Greeks  were  the  great  masters  of  outdoor  drama; 
and  naturally  the  works  of  Hans  Sachs  have  been 
brought  back  to  life;  and  the  German  classics  have 
had  their  place.  But,  important  as  these  and  the 
new  folk  dramas  may  have  been  from  the  German 


TWO   VIEWS    OF   THE    HARZ   MOUNTAIN   THEATRE. 


THE  NATURE  THEATRE  67 

standpoint,  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  Shake- 
speare's "A  Midsummer  Night's  Dream"  has 
proved  the  most  popular  of  all  the  theatre's  pro- 
ductions. 

The  auditorium  of  the  Harz  Mountain  Theatre 
is  on  a  mountain  side,  with  an  inspiring  outlook  over 
wooded  valleys  and  ranges  of  hills.  The  seats  are 
wooden  benches  on  roughly  shaped  stone  terraces. 
About  one  thousand  spectators  can  be  accommo- 
dated. The  stage  is  merely  a  large  levelled  space, 
with  jagged  boulders  at  one  end,  and  a  few  small 
trees  here  and  there.  All  along  the  back  is  a  rustic 
fence,  serving  presumably  to  prevent  the  actors  from 
taking  a  too  realistic  plunge  over  the  precipitous 
cliff  below. 

The  open-air  theatre  at  Hertenstein,  near 
Lucerne,  Switzerland,  stands  next  in  importance  to 
that  at  Thale,  among  the  nature  theatres  of  Europe. 
It  was  established  in  1909  by  Rudolf  Lorenz,  who 
already  had  had  long  experience  with  dramatic  pro- 
duction in  the  open,  and  with  two  or  three  impro- 
vised outdoor  theatres.  At  Hertenstein  the  produc- 
tions have  been  less  original,  and  less  important  as 
influencing  the  growth  of  a  body  of  national  drama, 
than  those  at  the  Harz  Mountain  Theatre.  But 
the  revivals  of  the  classics  have  been  far  finer.  In 
the  first  two  years  of  the  theatre's  existence  noted 


68  THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

actors  appeared  in  old  Greek  dramas,  in  plays  by 
Goethe  and  Hebbel,  in  Shakespeare,  and  even  in 
the  work  of  such  moderns  as  Ibsen  and  Hauptmann. 
Discerning  critics  have  pronounced  the  achievement 
of  the  theatre  a  distinct  artistic  success;  but  finan- 
cially the  venture  has  proved  a  failure — due  more, 
perhaps,  to  its  comparative  isolation  than  to  a  lack 
of  interest  in  serious  drama. 

Structurally  the  Hertenstein  theatre  is  especially 
interesting.  The  auditorium  is  comparatively  large, 
with  rising  tiers  of  strongly  built  wooden  seats  ar- 
ranged in  the  form  of  a  wide  arc.  Between  the 
stage  and  the  auditorium  is  a  sloping  bank  that  ef- 
fectually increases  illusion  by  making  a  distinct 
break  between  the  plane  of  action  and  the  real 
world  of  the  spectators.  The  stage  is  over  one 
hundred  feet  wide,  and  its  greatest  depth  is  nearly 
eighty  feet.  On  the  stage  three  buildings  were  con- 
structed to  provide  proper  entrances  and  exits  for 
those  plays  which  would  not  fit  into  the  natural  set- 
ting: in  the  centre,  a  temple,  or  palace-front,  in 
massive  classic  style;  at  the  right  a  three-storied 
tower ;  and  at  the  left  a  porch-like  structure.  Large 
trees  add  greatly  to  the  attractiveness  of  the  stage, 
and  the  background  is  of  trees  and  shrubs. 

Although  the  whole  composition  is  set  in  a  natural 
wood,  and  has  many  of  the  characteristics  of  the 


THE    NATURE    THEATRE   AT    HERTENSTEIN,    SWITZERLAND. 


THE  NATURE  THEATRE  69 

nature  theatre  type,  the  existence  of  the  buildings 
on  the  stage  challenges  a  comparison  with  the  con- 
scientiously natural  American  nature  theatres.  In 
the  playhouses  at  Peterborough,  and  Meriden,  and 
Madison,  and  in  the  Bohemian  Grove  Theatre, 
there  is  a  careful  avoidance  of  the  artificial  touch, 
and  especially  of  the  formal  lines  of  man-made 
structures  in  the  stage  background.  In  America  the 
prime  consideration  has  been  to  keep  the  theatre  as 
wild  as  possible,  with  a  consequent  maximum  use  of 
the  beauties  of  nature.  Perhaps  because  long  train- 
ing in  the  traditional  theatre  has  made  impossible  an 
absolute  divorce  from  the  artificial  elements  of  the 
indoor  stage,  or  perhaps  because  they  prefer  to 
sacrifice  natural  beauty  to  convenience  in  presenta- 
tion, the  European  directors  have  failed  to  take  ad- 
vantage of  nature  to  the  full.  Practically  all  their 
outdoor  playhouses  show  concessions  to  the  stan- 
dards of  indoor  art — even  incongruous  painted 
scenery  occasionally  finding  its  way  into  the  open. 
At  the  nature  theatre  at  Potsdam,  Germany,  the 
artificial  element  is  even  more  pronounced  than  at 
Hertenstein,  a  large  permanent  building  forming 
most  of  the  stage  background.  The  most  satisfying 
example  of  the  pure  nature  theatre  type  on  the 
Continent  is  the  "Theatre  de  la  Nature,"  at 
Cauterets  in  France.  Not  only  is  the  construction 


yo  THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

entirely  of  natural  elements,  but  the  staging  has  been 
wholesomely  independent  of  indoor  stage  accessories. 

In  the  theatre  in  the  Klampenborg  Woods  near 
Copenhagen,  the  productions  have  been  made  with 
a  minimum  of  artificial  "scenery"  in  the  back- 
ground ;  but  here  the  hand  of  man  is  only  too  evident 
in  the  construction  of  the  stage  itself.  The  stage 
floor  is  raised  about  eight  feet  above  the  lowest  level 
of  the  auditorium,  and  a  wooden  retaining  wall 
bounds  it  at  the  front.  In  this  wall  are  several 
windows,  which  give  light  to  the  dressing  rooms 
that  have  been  constructed  under  the  stage.  A  few 
feet  before  the  wall  is  a  solid  board  fence,  leaving 
a  space  in  which  the  orchestra  can  be  hidden.  At 
each  side  of  the  stage-front  is  a  massive  pedestal, 
perhaps  seven  feet  in  height,  surmounted  by  an  im- 
mense statue  of  a  bird.  The  two  vigorously  carved 
figures  that  thus  stand  guard  over  the  stage,  one  at 
either  hand,  add  a  very  decorative  touch  to  the  com- 
position, and  afford  a  finished  appearance  that  most 
nature  theatres  lack;  but  one  who  has  not  seen  a 
production  in  the  theatre  may  well  speculate  upon 
the  possibility  of  the  huge  statues  dwarfing  the 
action,  and  upon  the  seeming  incongruity  of  any 
such  artificial  feature  in  a  place  where  a  perfect 
union  of  art  and  nature  is  designed  to  be  effected. 

The    Klampenborg    theatre    is    unusually   large, 


THE    KLAMPENBORG    WOODS    THEATRE,    NEAR    COPENHAGEN, 

DENMARK. 


THE  NATURE  THEATRE  71 

easily  accommodating  more  than  three  thousand 
spectators.  Perhaps  this  is  one  reason  why  it  has 
been  more  successful  financially  than  any  other  nature 
theatre.  With  the  most  able  members  of  the 
dramatic  profession  in  Denmark  employed,  the  first 
season,  in  the  summer  of  1910,  yielded  a  net  profit 
of  more  than  five  thousand  dollars.  The  plays 
given  during  the  season  were  only  two:  UA  Mid- 
summer Night's  Dream"  and  a  Danish  national 
drama. 

Perhaps  the  most  remarkable  of  the  American 
nature  theatres,  and  the  oldest,  is  that  in  a  redwood 
grove  near  Monte  Rio,  California,  owned  by  the 
Bohemian  Club  of  San  Francisco.  In  the  natural 
beauty  of  its  stage  background  it  is  unequalled  among 
the  forest  theatres  of  the  world.  The  stage  is  a 
steep  hillside,  which  is  covered  with  a  dense  growth 
of  underbrush,  except  where  a  trail  winds  up,  now 
open,  now  half-hidden,  and  finally  lost  in  the  trees 
and  shrubs.  At  the  bottom  is  a  wide  open  space, 
and  several  smaller  platforms  stand  at  intervals 
along  the  trail,  one  above  the  other,  each  masked  by 
plants;  and  the  actors  may  be  grouped  on  any  one 
of  these,  or  by  ones  and  twos  along  the  trail.  The 
stage  is  framed  by  two  towering  redwood  trees, 
whose  naked  trunks  stretch  upward  until  they  are 
lost  in  the  mass  of  foliage  far  overhead.  Other 


72  THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

redwoods,  two  and  three  hundred  feet  high,  rise 
out  of  the  hillside  at  intervals,  forming  a  succession 
of  diminishing  inner  frames,  and  giving  a  remark- 
able sense  of  distance  to  the  setting.  Immediately 
before  the  stage  is  a  sunken  pit  for  the  orchestra, 
screened  by  a  thicket  of  ferns;  and  back  of  this  the 
rows  of  seats,  fashioned  from  redwood  logs,  begin. 
Like  the  stage,  the  auditorium  is  surrounded  by 
immense  redwood  trees. 

In  this  theatre  the  Bohemian  Club  has  presented 
its  annual  "grove  play"  since  1902,  developing  a 
new  form  of  musical  masque  that  is  unique  in  the 
field  of  dramatic  art.  The  play  has  evolved  grad- 
ually from  the  club's  old-time  midsummer  celebra- 
tion, or  "jinks,"  but  its  form  has  really  been  deter- 
mined by  the  physical  features  of  the  theatre,  the 
strict  limitations  as  well  as  the  magnificent  possi- 
bilities of  the  almost  vertical  stage  shaping  the 
spectacular  as  well  as  the  poetic  features  of  the 
production.  The  type  as  it  now  stands  offers  a  close 
parallel  to  the  old-time  masque,  but  with'  greater 
emphasis  upon  musical  accompaniment;  the  story  is 
always  poetically  worked  out,  and  there  is  a  frank 
reliance  upon  the  purely  visual  as  distinguished  from 
the  subtly  emotional  elements.  Masque-like  in  its 
poetic  presentation  of  the  story,  approaching  opera 
in  its  dependence  upon  music,  and  pageant-like  in 


THE  NATURE  THEATRE  73 

the  breadth  and  magnificence  of  its  decorative  effects, 
the  Grove  Play  is  indeed  a  novel  as  well  as  a  very 
beautiful  form.  Among  those  who  have  written  the 
plays  are  George  Sterling,  Herman  Sheffauer,  and 
Will  Irwin,  whose  "Hamadryads"  touched  perhaps 
the  highest  point  of  all  in  literary  achievement. 
Porter  Garnett,  author  of  one  of  the  most  successful 
of  the  plays,  has  written  also  a  book  about  the  Grove 
Theatre  and  the  dramatic  type  developed  there. 
The  volume  contains  synopses  of  all  the  plays  pre- 
sented up  to  1908,  and  is  well  worth  perusing  if 
one  is  interested  in  the  byways  of  the  art  of  the 
theatre. 

A  second  California  nature  theatre  is  that  con- 
structed by  the  colony  of  writers  and  artists  at 
Carmel-by-the-Sea,  named  "The  Forest  Theatre." 
Structurally  it  is  unimportant;  the  auditorium  is 
made  up  of  rows  of  wooden  seats  on  a  gently 
sloping  hillside;  and  the  stage  is  merely  a  raised 
wooden  floor,  against  a  thicket  of  trees  and  shrubs. 
On  this  platform  a  small  stage  building  usually  is 
erected,  varying  according  to  the  type  of  play  to 
be  presented,  being  now  a  miniature  Egyptian 
temple,  and  again  an  Indian  hut.  Dramatically  the 
theatre  is  one  of  the  most  important  in  the  West, 
for  here  the  plays  of  several  promising  dramatists 
have  been  tried  out,  and  extensive  experiments  made 


74  THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

in  staging.  Of  the  local  authors  whose  work  has 
been  presented,  the  most  notable  is  Mary  Austin. 
Of  late  there  has  been  a  tendency  to  widen  the  field 
of  the  theatre's  activity,  and  some  of  the  little-acted 
poetic  dramas  of  William  Butler  Yeats  were  recently 
produced  very  successfully. 

Comparable  with  the  Bohemian  Grove  Theatre 
in  the  wildness  of  its  setting  is  the  theatre  of  the 
Outdoor  Players  at  Peterborough,  New  Hampshire. 
Two  large  trees  frame  a  comparatively  level,  but 
boulder-strewn,  stage.  On  both  sides  there  are  pine 
trees,  maples,  hemlocks,  and  thick  undergrowth,  and 
at  the  back  is  a  wooded  hillside.  The  bed  of  a  little 
brook  separates  the  stage  from  the  auditorium, 
which  also  is  a  very  small  clearing  in  the  midst  of 
dense  woods.  During  the  first  "season,"  in  the 
summer  of  1914,  chairs  and  benches  were  used  for 
seats;  but  now  semi-circular  terraces  have  been 
built  of  the  native  rock.  The  smallness  of  the  audi- 
torium, whicli  seats  only  a  few  hundred  people,  and 
the  thick  foliage  on  all  sides,  combine  to  create  a 
sense  of  seclusion  and  intimacy  that  is  rare  in  nature 
playhouses.  The  activities  of  the  theatre  are 
notable  as  indicating  the  extent  of  interest  in  open- 
air  drama  in  America.  So  far  they  have  been 
limited  to  productions  by  the  Outdoor  Players,  who 
constitute  a  school  for  the  training  of  those  who  de- 


THE  NATURE  THEATRE  AT  VASSAR  COLLEGE.  THE  SUNKEN 
PATHWAY  DIVIDES  THE  SLOPING  AUDITORIUM  (AT  THE  LEFT)  FROM 
THE  STAGE,  AND  ALSO  SERVES  AS  A  HIDDEN  RECESS  FOR  THE 

ORCHESTRA. 
[LORING  UNDERWOOD,  ARCHITECT] 


THE  NATURE  THEATRE  75 

sire  to  produce  outdoor  drama.  The  student-actors 
are  drawn  from  all  parts  of  the  country,  and  are 
instructed  in  composition,  staging,  costuming,  acting 
and  dancing,  by  such  well-known  leaders  as  Living- 
ston Platt  and  Marie  Ware  Laughton.  Among  the 
productions  of  1914  was  Poliziano's  masque 
"Orfeo." 

The  nature  theatre  at  Vassar  College  is  of  a 
less  rugged  type.  The  lines  clearly  have  been 
shaped  by  human  hands,  and  yet  the  natural  atmos- 
phere has  been  preserved.  But  the  reflection  is  of 
nature  in  her  gentler  aspect.  There  is  a  suggestion 
of  the  more  artificial  garden  theatre  in  the  hemlock 
hedge  which  bounds  the  auditorium  at  the  front, 
and  again  in  the  pool  on  the  stage.  Of  particular 
interest  structurally  is  the  sunken  passageway  be- 
tween auditorium  and  stage,  which  serves  as  a  pit 
in  which  to  hide  the  orchestra  at  times  of  perform- 
ance. There  are  no  permanent  seats,  folding  chairs 
being  placed  on  the  sloping  lawn  when  needed. 

At  the  beautiful  little  Dell  Theatre  on  the  grounds 
of  the  Hill  School,  Pottstown,  Pennsylvania,  a 
formal  touch  is  added  by  the  planting  at  each  side 
of  the  stage,  while  the  background  is  left  as  a  pretty 
bit  of  tangled  woodland.  The  terraces,  which  seat 
nine  hundred  people,  have  been  shaped  concentri- 
cally, but  the  slope  is  not  great  enough  to  make 


76  THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

chairs  unnecessary.  The  theatre  is  used  in  connec- 
tion with  class-work;  but  the  really  important 
events  there  have  been  the  productions  of  Hermann 
Hagedorn's  "The  Heart  of  Youth"  and  "Victory." 

One  of  the  simplest  and  yet  one  of  the  most 
satisfying  of  nature  stages  is  that  of  the  little  open- 
air  theatre  at  Meriden,  New  Hampshire.  The 
background  is  a  solid  mass  of  foliage,  affording  a 
pleasing  sense  of  enclosure.  The  stage  is  given  an 
additional  "finished"  appearance  by  a  log  that  has 
been  placed  along  its  front.  In  productions  that 
demand  two  "planes  of  action,"  as  one  celestial  and 
one  mortal,  the  log  is  used  to  separate  the  one  from 
the  other,  the  earthly  characters  never  being  per- 
mitted to  intrude  on  the  inner  stage  of  the  spirits. 
In  this  theatre  Percy  Mackaye's  beautiful  bird 
masque  "Sanctuary"  was  first  staged.  The  produc- 
tion was  so  successful  that  the  masque  was  added 
to  the  repertory  of  the  Coburn  Players;  but  never 
will  it  find  a  more  nearly  ideal  setting  than  its  initial 
one  at  Meriden. 

It  is  largely  due  to  the  Coburn  Players,  perhaps, 
that  the  nature  theatre  idea  has  taken  strong  hold 
at  the  colleges  and  normal  schools  of  the  Middle 
West.  At  least  a  dozen  of  these  institutions  have 
built  or  planned  outdoor  playhouses,  with  the 
primary  purpose  of  providing  adequate  settings  for 


m 


THE    DELL    THEATRE,    AT    POTTSTOWN,    PENNSYLVANIA.      A    COM- 
BINATION OF  THE  NATURE  THEATRE  AND  GARDEN  THEATRE  TYPES. 


THE  NATURE  THEATRE  77 

the  productions  of  travelling  bands  of  open-air 
players.  The  most  interesting  of  these  theatres  is 
on  the  grounds  of  the  Western  Illinois  State  Normal 
School  at  Macomb.  A  clearing  has  been  made  in 
a  wooded  ravine,  and  a  raised  stage,  seventy-five 
feet  deep  and  forty  feet  wide,  has  been  constructed 
of  earth  and  sodded.  Its  background  is  an  informal 
arrangement  of  trees  and  shrubs,  with  openings  for 
entrance  and  exit  at  irregular  intervals.  Imme- 
diately below  the  stage  is  a  wide  orchestra  pit,  also 
of  sod,  and  back  of  this  the  concrete  "risers"  of  the 
auditorium  begin.  These  are  in  the  shape  of  an  arc, 
the  lowest  one  being  seventy  feet  long,  and  on  the 
circumference  of  a  circle  one  hundred  feet  in  diam- 
eter. Each  "riser"  is  three  feet  wide,  and  each  is 
six  inches  above  the  one  next  below.  At  times  of 
performance  folding  chairs  are  placed  on  the  con- 
crete terraces  —  an  inexpensive  arrangement  that  is 
common  in  the  Middle  Western  outdoor  theatres. 
At  present  the  Macomb  playhouse  seats  about  six 
hundred  people,  but  additional  terraces  are  to  be 
placed  on  the  hillside  above  the  present  auditorium. 
The  stage  also  is  to  be  widened  to  seventy-five  feet. 
The  theatre  was  opened  with  Shakespearean  pro- 
ductions by  the  Coburn  Players  in  the  summer  of 


The  theatre  of  the  State  Normal  University,  at 


78  THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

Normal,  Illinois,  is  similar  to  that  at  Macomb,  but 
is  less  elaborate  and  less  permanent.  The  First 
District  Normal  School  at  Kirksville,  Missouri,  has 
started  the  construction  of  a  playhouse  that  is  partly 
of  the  nature  type  and  partly  of  the  Greek  or  archi- 
tectural type.  A  massive  concrete  wall  bounds  the 
stage  at  the  front.  The  orchestra  pit  is  sunk  four 
feet  below  the  stage  floor,  and  back  of  it  the  tiers 
of  chairs  rise  in  horseshoe  form.  Additional  seat- 
ing space  is  provided  by  movable  "bleachers"  which 
are  brought  in  on  runners  from  the  athletic  fields. 
The  stage  is  forty  feet  wide  and  thirty  feet  deep, 
and  slopes  up  slightly  from  front  to  back.  An 
interesting  feature  is  the  temporary  awning  that  is 
erected  over  auditorium  and  stage  at  times  of  per- 
formance, giving  shelter  from  sun  and  rain. 

Very  similar  to  the  Macomb  Theatre  is  that 
connected  with  the  Building  of  Arts,  at  Bar  Harbor, 
Maine.  The  stage,  however,  is  more  open,  and 
more  indefinite,  with  large  trees  scattered  here  and 
there.  It  is,  therefore,  better  fitted  for  pageants 
and  dances,  but  not  so  satisfying  as  a  background 
for  plays.  Its  existence  within  a  few  hundred  feet 
of  an  indoor  theatre  suggests  a  wise  foresight  on  the 
part  of  the  builders.  In  a  climate  that  brings  scat- 
tered rainstorms  every  month  of  the  year,  such  an 


THE    NATURE   THEATRE    AT   MACOMB,    ILLINOIS. 


THE  NATURE  THEATRE  79 

arrangement  of  adjoining  outdoor  and  indoor 
stages  would  seem  to  be  imperative. 

A  distinction  may  be  made  between  the  nature 
theatre  that  is  designed  primarily  for  the  production 
of  plays,  and  the  theatre  for  pageants  and  dances. 
The  pageant  theatre  seldom. has  the  enclosed  and 
more  or  less  intimate  atmosphere  that  is  essential  to 
the  other  sort;  it  is  more  open,  with  wide  sweeps  of 
landscape  behind  the  stage,  sometimes  of  river  and 
lake,  sometimes  of  mountains,  and  sometimes  merely 
of  lawns  and  woods.  Perhaps  the  most  perfect  of 
the  pageant  stages  in  America,  because  it  combines  a 
certain  sense  of  enclosure  with  breadth  of  outlook, 
is  that  at  Peterborough,  New  Hampshire,  where  the 
MacDowell  Memorial  Pageants  have  been  pre- 
sented. A  fringe  of  woodland  affords  a  solid  back- 
ground of  foliage  for  the  action,  but  a  vista  above 
carries  the  eye  out  to  a  panorama  of  hill  arid  for- 
est, with  Mount  Monadnock  in  the  distance.  The 
stage  is  unusually  large,  permitting  extensive  spec- 
tacular effects  and  processions.  The  auditorium 
seats  two  thousand  spectators. 

The  musical  pageant  which  has  developed  at  the 
Peterborough  theatre  is  a  new  and  notable  type. 
Under  the  inspiration  of  the  memory  of  Edward 
MacDowell,  and  with  the  able  aid  of  such  dramatic 
leaders  as  Professor  George  Pierce  Baker  and 


8o  THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

Hermann  Hagedorn,  the  artists  and  art-lovers  of  the 
MacDowell  colony  have  created  a  form  of  produc- 
tion that  is  comparable  to  the  Bohemian  Grove 
Plays.  The  Peterborough  production,  however,  is 
distinctly  of  the  pageant  rather  than  the  dramatic 
masque  type.  It  has  not  the  unity  of  action  of  the 
Grove  Plays,  and  it  utilizes  dancing  and  spectacle 
more  expansively.  It  may  be  described  as  a  musical 
festival  rather  than  as  a  musical  masque  or  opera. 
As  the  first  of  its  kind,  the  MacDowell  pageant  has 
had  great  influence  on  the  growth  of  pageantry 
throughout  the  country. 

A  theatre  of  the  open  pageant  type,  but  differing 
widely  from  that  at  Peterborough,  has  been  con- 
structed on  the  grounds  of  the  University  of  Wis- 
consin, at  Madison.  Groups  of  trees  frame  the 
wooden  platform  stage  at  both  sides,  but  at  the 
back  there  is  an  almost  unbroken  view  of  Lake 
Mendota.  The  whole  forms  a  very  pretty  compo- 
sition, and  a  more  satisfying  background  for 
pageant-like  productions  could  not  be  desired.  The 
theatre  in  its  present  form  is  not  permanent,  being 
in  the  nature  of  an  experiment.  Those  interested 
in  drama  at  the  University  of  Wisconsin,  under  the 
leadership  of  Professor  Thomas  H.  Dickinson,  took 
up  the  question  of  open-air  theatres  with  commend- 
able thoroughness  and  conservatism.  They  did  not 


THE    PETERBOROUGH    PAGEANT   THEATRE,    AT    PETERBOROUGH, 

NEW  HAMPSHIRE. 
[COPYRIGHT  BY  THE  MACDOWELL  MEMORIAL  ASSOCIATION] 


THE  NATURE  THEATRE  81 

rush  into  the  construction  of  an  outdoor  playhouse; 
and  the  story  of  their  study  of,  and  experiment  with, 
the  problem  should  interest  every  producer  of  open- 
air  drama.  At  first  plans  were  drawn  for  a  Greek 
theatre  similar  to  that  at  Berkeley.  But  after  study- 
ing the  productions  at  Berkeley  the  Wisconsin  pro- 
ducers decided  that  the  architectural  type  was  not  at 
all  fitted  for  the  production  of  the  extensive  pageant 
and  spectacular  masque  which  are  a  very  distinctive 
and  valuable  part  of  the  creative  work  of  the  Middle 
Western  dramatists.  So  the  experimental  theatre 
that  has  been  described  was  erected  on  the  lake 
front.  Immediately,  however,  it  was  discovered 
that  while  the  wide  outlook  added  finely  to  the 
spectacular  effects  and  afforded  a  very  flexible  set- 
ting, there  was  a  loss  of  intimacy  and  of  concentra- 
tion of  interest  that  was  not  to  be  accepted  without 
serious  consideration.  Now  the  experimenters  for 
the  time  being  have  abandoned  their  "meadow 
theatre,"  as  Professor  Dickinson  has  termed  it,  and 
are  trying  out  what  they  call  the  "cup"  type.  This 
is  planned  as  a  compromise  between  the  other  two, 
sacrificing  the  maximum  of  openness  to  a  more 
rounded  and  protected  sort  of  structure,  but  still 
retaining  the  nature  background  instead  of  the 
architectural  "skene."  It  still  is  doubtful  whether 
the  beautiful  outlook  can  be  utilized  and  the  closed- 


82  THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

in  feeling  at  the  same  time  preserved;  but  one  can 
be  very  certain  that  when  a  permanent  theatre  is 
constructed  at  Madison  it  will  fit  local  conditions  and 
local  needs  more  perfectly  than  could  any  other. 

In  point  of  size  and  breadth  of  conception  the  tem- 
porary pageant  theatre  at  Forest  Park  in  St.  Louis 
was  the  most  notable  ever  constructed  in  the  country. 
The  immense  auditorium  retained  almost  its  natural 
form,  being  in  the  shape  of  an  arc,  and  sloping  just 
enough  to  give  perfect  sight-lines  from  every  por- 
tion. At  the  production  of  the  ambitious  Pageant 
and  Masque  of  Saint  Louis,  there  were  seats  for 
forty-five  thousand  spectators,  and  it  is  said  that 
between  one  hundred  and  one  hundred  and  fifty 
thousand  people  witnessed  one  of  the  performances. 
The  stage  was  built  on  a  scale  quite  as  large.  Its 
front  was  no  less  than  one  thousand  feet,  and  its 
depth  two  hundred.  The  actors  in  the  production 
numbered  seven  thousand  five  hundred.  The  stage 
was  separated  from  the  auditorium  by  a  lagoon, 
which  was  utilized  in  the  pageant  and  masque  for 
spectacular  entrances  by  boat.  To  dominate  such 
an  immense  theatre  is  a  task  for  a  dramatic  giant; 
but  Percy  Mackaye,  with  his  "Masque  of  St.  Louis," 
and  Thomas  Wood  Stevens  with  his  accompanying 
pageant,  held  the  audiences  spell-bound,  and  proved 
the  feasibility  of  production  on  a  community  scale. 


THE  NATURE  THEATRE  83 

Like  a  miniature  edition  of  the  St.  Louis  pageant 
theatre  is  the  Bankside  Theatre  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  North  Dakota.  Here  a  stream  about 
fifteen  feet  wide,  curving  in  the  shape  of  a  semi- 
circle, separates  stage  and  auditorium.  The  stage 
is  approximately  one  hundred  feet  along  the  curving 
front,  and  slopes  up  slightly  from  the  water's  edge 
to  a  grove  of  low  trees  at  the  back.  The  present 
wooden  seats  of  the  sloping  auditorium  are  to  be  re- 
placed by  rising  concrete  terraces.  When  the  thea- 
tre is  completed  according  to  the  plan  now  in  hand 
the  seating  capacity  will  be  three  thousand.  The 
theatre  was  dedicated  in  1914,  when  "A  Pageant 
of  the  North-West"  was  produced  under  the  direc- 
tion of  Frederick  H.  Koch. 

As  the  only  reason  for  taking  drama  to  the  moun- 
tain-tops is  to  gain  breadth  of  outlook,  the  moun- 
tain theatres  are  all  of  the  pageant  type.  The  Harzer 
Bergtheater,  to  be  sure,  has  done  much  to  develop 
a  new  form  of  pure  drama;  but  when  the  plays  of 
concentrated  dramatic  interest  have  been  produced 
there,  it  has  been  found  necessary  to  build  up  back- 
grounds of  buildings  and  foliage,  blotting  out  the 
wide  vista  over  the  mountains  and  valleys.  Perhaps 
the  most  notable  mountain  theatre  in  America,  that 
on  Mount  Tamalpais,  near  San  Francisco,  in  the 
same  way  is  too  open  for  successful  production  of 


84  THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

intimate  drama.  When  the  Sanskrit  play  "Shakun- 
tala"  was  produced,  most  of  the  poetic  subtlety  and 
intimate  charm  was  lost,  only  the  broadest  and  most 
obvious  of  the  humorous  and  pathetic  situations  car- 
rying to  the  audience.  The  things  that  the  average 
spectator  remembered  best  were  quite  aside  from 
the  characteristic  virtues  of  the  play:  the  groups  of 
horsemen  galloping  up  a  glade,  across  the  stage,  and 
away  through  the  trees;  the  yellow-robed  Hindoo 
standing  on  a  rock,  silhouetted  against  the  sky, 
chanting  a  Sanskrit  prologue  in  tones  quite  in  keep- 
ing with  the  strangeness  of  the  setting;  the  groups 
of  gaily-dressed  dancers  against  the  trees ;  and  above 
all,  the  wonderful  view  beyond,  with  the  wooded 
valleys  and  the  foothills  seen  between  two  shoulders 
of  the  mountain,  and  still  farther  down  the  blue  bay 
on  one  side  and  the  white  fog-banks  drifting  in  from 
the  ocean  on  the  other.  In  such  a  theatre  surely 
the  only  production  in  which  most  of  the  actors'  ef- 
forts will  not  be  wasted  is  that  in  which  nature  and 
man  collaborate  spectacularly  in  mass  effects.  It  was 
the  experience  with  "Shakuntala,"  perhaps,  that  led 
the  producers  to  choose  more  wisely  for  later  pro- 
ductions "Rip  van  Winkle"  and  "William  Tell." 

At  the  Mount  Tamalpais  Theatre  the  auditorium 
has  not  been  shaped,  an  irregular  hollow  affording 
seating  space  for  perhaps  seven  or  eight  thousand 


ABOVE,  THE  BANKSIDE  THEATRE,  AT  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  NORTH 

DAKOTA.       BELOW,  A  PORTION  OF  THE  STAGE  OF  THE  MOUNT 

TAMALPAIS  THEATRE,  NEAR  MILL  VALLEY,  CALIFORNIA. 

[PHOTOGRAPH  BY  GABRIEL  MOULIN] 


THE  NATURE  THEATRE  85 

people.  The  stage  had  been  changed  only  slightly 
to  centre  the  interest.  The  theatre  is  owned  by  the 
Mountain  Play  Association,  a  group  of  amateur  and 
semi-professional  actors  and  drama-lovers,  who  pro- 
duce one  play  annually.  On  Mountain  Play  day 
literally  thousands  from  San  Francisco  and  neighbor- 
ing communities  climb  to  the  theatre,  and  already  the 
occasion  has  become  a  red-letter  day  in  the  com- 
munity's art  calendar. 

Some  of  the  places  that  have  become  famous  for 
outdoor  productions  really  do  not  deserve  the  name 
"theatre"  at  all.  Thus  the  Tree  Day  festivals  and 
other  productions  at  Wellesley  College,  which  are 
known  throughout  the  country,  have  been  produced 
in  a  wooded  glade  that  bears  very  little  likeness  to 
a  playhouse.  Of  the  long  list  of  American  pageants 
very  few  are  associated  with  permanent  open-air  the- 
atres. Some  of  the  stages  improvised  for  these  pro- 
ductions have  been  interesting,  but  being  ephemeral, 
they  hardly  demand  description  with  the  perma- 
nent structures. 

It  only  remains  to  say  a  word  about  the  so-called 
"water  theatres."  In  these  the  actual  stage  may  be 
nothing  more  than  a  narrow  river  bank  against  a 
mass  of  trees,  with  a  broad  sheet  of  water  in  front. 
The  well-known  theatre  at  Tiefurt  in  Germany  is 
a  typical  example.  The  St.  Louis  pageant  theatre 


86  THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

might  be  cited  as  an  American  example,  except  that 
the  lagoon  is  rather  an  incidental  feature  than  the 
centre  of  the  composition.  The  effects  that  can  be 
obtained  on  the  water  theatre  stage  are  so  unique, 
and  in  their  way  so  beautiful,  that  the  type  will 
doubtless  find  its  adherents  here  as  in  Europe. 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE  GARDEN  THEATRE 

THE  world  has  heard  much  of  certain  out- 
door playhouses:  of  the  modern  Greek 
theatres  in  the  West,  and  of  the  forest 
theatres  and  pageant  stages  of  many  states  and  coun- 
tries. But  of  the  unassuming  garden  theatre  little 
has  been  said.  Usually  hidden  away  on  a  private 
estate,  often  fitting  into  the  surrounding  landscape 
so  well  that  the  casual  observer  would  not  guess  its 
purpose,  and  seldom  housing  productions  that  are 
advertised  to  the  public,  the  garden  playhouse  re- 
mains, except  to  the  initiated  and  understanding  few, 
an  almost  unknown  phase  of  modern  theatre-making. 
And  yet  to  the  garden  lover,  and  to  the  amateur 
actor  and  producer,  it  is  the  most  interesting  of  all 
the  types.  In  it  nature  and  dramatic  art  meet  and 
blend  most  perfectly. 

The  garden  theatre  differs  from  the  "Greek"  the- 
atres in  that  its  architectural  features  are  only  inci- 
dental, as  perhaps  a  pergola,  or  masonry  terrace,  or 
stone  steps.  It  differs  from  the  nature  theatre,  or 

87 


88          THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

forest  theatre,  on  the  other  hand,  in  that  the  stage 
of  the  latter  is  usually  only  an  open  space  in  the 
woods,  with  an  idyllic  natural  background,  while  the 
garden  stage  usually  is  formally  shaped  with  a  back- 
ground of  clipped  hedges,  or  other  conventional  ar- 
rangement of  trees  and  shrubs.  But  perhaps  the 
most  noticeable  difference  is  that  the  garden  theatre 
almost  always  is  very  small.  While  the  Greek  or 
architectural  theatres  and  the  nature  theatres  seat 
four  or  five  thousand  or  more  people,  the  more  mod- 
est garden  theatre  is  content  to  accommodate  a  few 
hundred.  Each  type  of  open-air  playhouse  has  its 
distinctive  virtues,  and  perhaps  this  very  littleness  is 
the  chief  one  of  the  garden  theatre,  bringing  as  it 
does  a  charming  sense  of  intimacy,  and  an  atmos- 
phere of  cloistered  seclusion. 

Because  only  the  greater  monuments  of  Greek  and 
Roman  architecture  have  survived  the  vicissitudes  of 
time,  no  one  can  say  certainly  that  the  garden  thea- 
tre existed  for  the  delight  of  the  Greeks  and  Ro- 
mans. But  it  seems  that  in  those  days  when  drama 
was  so  close  to  the  hearts  of  men,  and  when  so  much 
of  art  was  developed  under  patronage,  and  when 
nobles  were  wont  to  entertain  their  friends  with  every 
sort  of  recitation  and  musical  and  dramatic  pro- 
duction, the  private  open-air  theatre  must  have  had 
its  place.  When  one  thinks  back  to  Sappho  and  to 


GARDEN  THEATRE  89 

Anacreon  it  seems  that  no  place  but  a  garden  play- 
house would  have  been  perfectly  suited  to  their  reci- 
tations. And  indeed  one  has  in  the  paintings  of 
Alma-Tadema  a  very  suggestive  picture  of  what  the 
Greek  garden  theatre  may  have  been:  not  so  much 
a  matter  of  shrubs  and  lawns  and  trees,  but  rather 
a  miniature  of  the  larger  public  theatre,  with  all  the 
perfection  of  line  and  all  the  exquisite  richness  of 
the  Greek  temple.  And  may  not  Maecenas  in  his 
time  have  built  a  private  playhouse  on  his  estate, 
where  Horace  might  recite  his  latest  ode,  or  the  bud- 
ding Roman  dramatist  produce  his  newest  comedy 
before  a  select  audience  of  friends?  It  is  well  known 
that  the  famous  Villa  of  Hadrian  near  Tivoli  could 
boast  both  a  Greek  and  a  Roman  theatre.  Is  it 
probable  that  the  dramatic  equipment  did  not  in- 
clude also  the  more  intimate,  but  less  permanent, 
garden  theatre?  These,  indeed,  are  only  conjec- 
tures; but  in  one  case  there  is  authentic  proof  of  a 
very  real  approach  to  the  garden  theatre  in  classic 
times.  At  the  Roman  Imperial  Villa  at  Pausilypon 
the  private  theatre,  which  was  very  small  as  ancient 
playhouses  go,  had  no  stage  building.  Instead,  the 
archaeologists  say,  the  audience  looked  across  the 
stage  to  a  formal  garden. 

Of  the  garden  theatres  that  have  survived  from 
other  times  to  the  present  the  most  famous  and  thft 


9o          THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

most  interesting  are  those  of  the  Italian  villas.  The 
broad  estates  of  that  magic  Italy  of  three  and  four 
centuries  ago  were  rich  in  outdoor  theatres  that  re- 
flected the  peculiarly  finished  beauty  of  the  surround- 
ing gardens  and  palaces.  These  al  fresco  play- 
houses usually  served  more  than  the  single  purpose 
of  a  place  for  dramatic  performances;  the  theatre 
was  an  integral  part  of  an  elaborate  formal  design, 
having  a  very  definite  relation  to  the  house,  the 
walks,  the  terraces,  the  fountains,  and  the  other  ar- 
chitectural features.  Thus  the  stage  usually  ter- 
minated an  important  axis,  and  often  a  statue  was 
placed  in  the  centre  of  the  rear  stage -wall,  to  give 
just  the  right  finish  to  a  vista  from  other  openings 
in  the  garden. 

Purely  architectural  elements  were  rigidly  ex- 
cluded from  most  of  the  Italian  garden  theatres; 
there  were  no  pergolas,  or  pillars,  to  frame  the 
stage,  and  no  built-up  wings  or  backgrounds.  The 
type  was  perfectly  the  "teatro  di  verdura"  The 
necessary  formal  character  was  obtained  by  the  use 
of  hedges  clipped  to  conventional  lines,  with  an  oc- 
casional retaining  wall  or  flight  of  stairs  to  complete 
the  set  design.  The  most  characteristic  type,*  of 
which  the  theatres  at  the  Villa  Gori,  the  Villa  Mar- 

*  Sketch-plans  of  four  representative  villa  theatres  will  be  found 
among  the  illustrations  of  Appendix  I. 


GARDEN  THEATRE   ON  THE   ESTATE   OF  MR.   HENRY   E.   BOTHIN  AT 
MONTECITO,  CALIFORNIA.      A  COPY  OF  THE  ITALIAN  VILLA  THEATRE 

TYPE. 


GARDEN  THEATRE  91 

Ha,  and  the  Villa  Collodi  are  examples,  showed  a  flat 
auditorium  floor,  usually  of  gravel  or  lawn,  where 
chairs  or  benches  could  be  placed,  and  a  nearly  level 
stage  raised  two  or  three  feet  above  this  floor;  cy- 
press or  ilex  hedges  formed  the  wings  for  the  play- 
ers' entrances  and  exits,  and  other  hedges  or  masses 
of  trees  and  shrubs  surrounded  the  stage  and  often 
the  auditorium.  The  green  turf  of  the  stage  floor 
and  the  green  hedges,  harmonizing  in  one  soft  back- 
ground, produced  a  perfect  setting  for  the  action. 

The  most  famous  of  the  Italian  villa  theatres  is 
that  at  the  Villa  Gori,  near  Siena.  Edith  Wharton, 
in  her  book  "Italian  Villas  and  Their  Gardens,"  de- 
scribes the  approach  to  the  theatre,  through  a  tun- 
nel of  interwoven  ilex  hedges,  and  continues  in  this 
way:  "The  pit  of  this  theatre  is  a  semi-circular 
opening,  bounded  by  a  low  wall  and  seat,  which  is 
backed  by  a  high  ilex  hedge.  The  parterre  is  laid 
out  in  an  elaborate  broderie  of  turf  and  gravel, 
above  which  the  stage  is  raised  about  three  feet. 
The  pit  and  the  stage  are  enclosed  in  a  double  hedge 
of  ilex,  so  that  the  actors  may  reach  the  wings  with- 
out being  seen  by  the  audience;  but  the  stage  set- 
ting consists  of  rows  of  clipped  cypresses,  each  ad- 
vancing a  few  feet  beyond  the  one  before  it,  so  that 
they  form  a  perspective  running  up  to  the  back  of 
the  stage,  and  terminated  by  the  tall  shaft  of  a  sin- 


92  THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

gle  cypress  which  towers  high  into  the  blue  in  the 
exact  centre  of  the  background.  No  mere  descrip- 
tion of  its  plan  can  convey  the  charm  of  this  ex- 
quisite little  theatre,  approached  through  the  mys- 
terious dark  of  the  long  pleached  alley,  and  lying  in 
sunshine  and  silence  under  its  roof  of  blue  sky,  in  its 
walls  of  unchanging  verdure.  Imagination  must 
people  the  stage  with  the  sylvan  figures  of  the 
'Aminta'  or  the  'Pastor  Fido,'  and  must  place  on  the 
encircling  seats  a  company  of  nobil  donne  in  pearls 
and  satin,  with  their  cavaliers  in  the  black  Spanish 
habit  and  falling  lace  collar  which  Van  Dyke  has  im- 
mortalized in  his  Genoese  portraits;  and  the  re- 
membrance of  this  leafy  stage  will  lend  new  life  to 
the  reading  of  the  Italian  pastorals,  and  throw  a 
brighter  sunlight  over  the  woodland  comedies  of 
Shakespeare." 

The  theatre  at  the  Villa  Collodi  (sometimes 
called  Villa  Garzoni,  from  the  family  name),  at 
Pescia,  is  similar  to  that  at  the  Villa  Gori  in  stage 
arrangement,  there  being  the  same  series  of  clipped 
hedges  to  form  the  wings,  but  of  ilex  instead  of  cy- 
press. The  auditorium  is  merely  a  widening  of  a 
garden  path.  The  stage  is  rather  low  and  is  cut 
into  a  hillside,  with  retaining  walls  on  three  sides. 
An  interesting  feature  is  the  prompter's  box  at  the 


GARDEN  THEATRE  93 

front  of  the  stage,  shielded  by  a  rounded  wall  of 
clipped  ilex. 

The  theatre  at  the  Villa  Sergardi,  near  Siena,  is 
unique  in  that  the  front  stage  wall  forms  one  of  the 
four  boundaries  of  a  court,  two  of  the  other  sides 
being  flanked  by  buildings.  Thus  the  court,  which 
had  many  other  uses  at  other  times,  became  the  thea- 
tre pit  when  plays  were  presented;  and  the  windows 
of  the  palace  across  the  court  from  the  stage  doubt- 
less were  utilized  as  boxes.  The  stage  floor  is  of 
turf,  with  an  encircling  gravel  walk,  and  the  wings 
are  formed  of  ilex  hedges.  The  stage  is  especially 
interesting  for  the  unusual  atmosphere  of  enclosure 
and  intimacy,  and  for  the  decorative  topiary  work 
on  the  hedges. 

Professor  Henry  Vincent  Hubbard,  who  has  made 
an  extensive  study  of  the  Italian  garden  theatres,  has 
kindly  allowed  his  drawing  of  that  at  the  Villa  Mar- 
lia,  near  Lucca,  to  be  reproduced  herewith.  He  de- 
scribes the  theatre  in  this  way:  "The  auditorium  is 
divided  into  three  levels,  a  horse-shoe  shaped  area 
about  forty  feet  across,  behind  which  are  two  ter- 
races, the  lower  and  smaller  being  about  eighteen 
inches  high  and  three  feet  wide,  the  upper  being 
about  three  feet  above  the  lowest  level  and  about 
nine  feet  wide.  The  walls  supporting  these  ter- 
races, as  well  as  the  four-foot  wall  supporting  the 


94 


THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 


The  garden  theatre  at  Villa  Marlia.  This  drawing,  by  Henry 
Vincent  Hubbard,  shows  the  details  of  a  typical  Italian  garden 
theatre  of  the  simpler  sort.  The  flat  auditorium  and  slightly 
sloping  stage,  the  simple  arrangement  of  cypress  hedges  to  form  a 
background  and  "wings,"  and  the  general  atmosphere  of  intimacy, 
are  characteristic  of  the  type. 


GARDEN  THEATRE  95 

stage,  are  screened  by  box  hedges,  each  kept  at  the 
height  of  the  wall,  so  that  the  masonry  is  invisible. 
Behind  the  upper  terrace  is  a  carefully  clipped  ilex 
hedge,  with  four  openings  on  each  side  equally 
spaced,  three  of  which  are  windows  and  one  a  door, 
giving  access  to  a  sort  of  ante-room  under  the  shade 
of  great  ilexes  behind  the  auditorium.  The  stage 
is  enframed  with  cypress  screens,  behind  which,  as 
usual,  are  the  wings,  in  this  case  more  ample  than  in 
the  other  instances,  surrounded  on  the  outside  by  a 
tall  ilex  hedge  and  shaded  by  overhanging  trees. 
There  are  three  statues  at  the  back  of  the  stage,  one 
in  the  central  axis  and  the  other  two  symmetrically 
disposed  in  front  of  the  two  rear  cypress  screens. 
There  is  a  prompter's  shelter,  made  of  clipped  box, 
in  front  of  the  stage,  as  at  Collodi.  Running  along 
the  front  of  the  stage  is  a  row  of  little  clipped  box 
bushes,  behind  which  lights  could  be  placed  when 
performances  were  given  by  night." 

One  of  the  smallest  and  simplest  of  the  'Italian 
garden  theatres  is  at  the  Villa  Serraglio,  near  Si- 
ena. Here  the  stage  is  rectangular,  with  a  gravel 
floor  and  with  yew  hedges  for  wings.  The  audi- 
torium also  is  rectangular,  and  lies  four  feet  below 
the  stage  level.  An  unusual  feature  is  a  group  of 
eight  stone  seats,  arranged  by  two,  at  the  centre  of 
the  auditorium. 


96  THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

An  example  of  the  Italian  theatre  of  the  decadent 
period  is  that  at  Isola  Bella,  on  Lake  Maggiore, 
known  as  the  Theatre  of  Hercules.  The  structure 
is  clearly  designed  for  decorative  rather  than  drama- 
tic uses,  although  dramatic  productions  doubtless 
were  given  there.  The  ornate  architectural  back- 
ground, with  its  overlarge  statue  of  Hercules  and 
its  many  minor  figures,  lacks  all  that  sense  of  repose 
which  is  such  a  pleasing  accompaniment  of  the 
clipped  hedge  type. 

The  largest  of  the  true  garden  theatres  of  the 
Italian  Villas  is  at  Castelnuovo,  near  Palermo.  The 
general  design  is  similar  to  that  at  Villa  Gori,  but 
here  the  dimensions  are  greater  in  every  detail. 
There  is  the  usual  arrangement  of  cypress  wings; 
but  a  unique  feature  exists  in  a  stucco  wall  used  as  a 
stage  background.  Painted  scenery  was  introduced 
against  this  wall.  Reflecting  on  the  perfect  fitness 
of  the  restful  hedge  backgrounds  elsewhere,  one 
feels  that  this  artificial  touch  would  appear  a  false 
note. 

Of  a  very  different  type — and  to  be  included 
among  the  garden  theatres  only  by  a  generous  ex- 
tension of  the  term — is  the  outdoor  playhouse  in  the 
Boboli  Gardens  at  Florence.  Here  several  tiers  of 
stone  seats  rise  on  each  side  of  a  large  level  plat, 
where  hundreds  of  players  could  take  part  in  dances 


ABOVE,      THE          WATER     THEATRE          AT      VERSAILLES,      FRANCE. 
BELOW,  THE  AMPHITHEATRE  IN  THE  BOBOLI  GARDENS,  FLORENCE, 

ITALY. 


GARDEN  THEATRE  97 

and  masques  and  pageants.  Above  the  seats  are 
statues  in  niches,  against  high  laurel  hedges.  The 
whole  composition  forms  a  horse-shoe,  with  an  elab- 
orate fountain  at  the  open  end,  with  the  palace  ris- 
ing directly  behind  it.  This  sort  of  amphitheatre 
is  of  more  interest  architecturally,  and  as  part  of  a 
formal  garden  design,  than  dramatically.  It  is  per- 
fectly suited  to  festivals  and  pageants,  but  it  is  hardly 
fitted  for  those  forms  of  drama  in  which  concentra- 
tion of  attention  is  necessary. 

The  clipped  hedge  theatres  of  Italy  were  at  one 
time  extensively  copied  in  the  more  northern  Euro- 
pean countries,  and  a  few  examples  may  still  be 
found  in  France  and  Germany.  The  playhouse  in 
a  park  at  Rheinsberg,  in  Germany,  is  an  almost  per- 
fect survival  of  the  type.  Goethe's  interesting  lit- 
tle theatre  in  the  gardens  of  the  Belvidere  Palace 
near  Weimar  is  a  miniature  example.  Here  the 
stage  is  only  fifteen  feet  wide  and  twenty-five  deep, 
and  the  hedge  wings  only  six  feet  high.  The  tiny 
auditorium  could  accommodate  hardly  more  than  a 
score  of  spectators. 

Perhaps  the  most  famous  of  the  French  theatres 
in  Italian  style,  that  at  St.  Cloud,  is  now  entirely 
gone.  But  there  is  at  Versailles  a  survival  of  the 
theatre  d'eau  or  "fountain  theatre,"  which  was  very 
popular  at  one  time.  In  structures  of  this  type  a 


98  THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

wide  circle,  used  for  dances  and  spectacles,  was  sur- 
rounded perhaps  two-thirds  of  the  way  round  by  low 
terraces  of  seats.  On  the  third  side  was  con- 
structed a  higher  section  of  terraces,  appearing  at 
first  glance  to  be  a  more  elaborate  part  of  the  au- 
ditorium. In  reality,  however,  these  decorated  ter- 
races formed  a  series  of  fountains;  and  when  the 
flow  of  water  started,  the  whole  became  a  dazzling 
series  of  miniature  water-falls,  semi-circular  in  form, 
with  the  composition  varied  here  and  there  by  tall 
slender  jets.  The  term  "theatre  d'eau"  seems  to 
have  been  used  to  name  not  only  the  structures  thus 
built  in  theatre  form,  but  any  arrangement  of  seats 
from  which  spectators  could  watch  the  groups  of 
fountains  and  jets  that  were  common  in  the  gardens 
of  the  time. 

An  adaptation  of  the  Italian  type,  and  one  that 
suited  the  colder  northern  countries  better  than  the 
clipped  hedge  variety,  was  the  treillage  or  "trellis- 
work"  theatre.  In  this  the  stage  background  was 
formed  by  a  combination  of  hedges  and  trellises, 
the  latter  often  in  elaborate  design.  Arms  of  the 
trellis  work  occasionally  encircled  the  auditorium 
also.  In  Holland  especially  the  treillage  type  was 
popular  in  the  golden  period  of  garden-making  and 
garden-theatres.  The  most  interesting  of  the  ex- 
amples now  existing,  however,  is  at  Mannheim,  in 


THE    TREILLAGE-WORK   THEATRE    AT   MANNHEIM,    GERMANY. 


GARDEN  THEATRE  99 

Germany.  The  photograph  of  this  theatre  which 
is  here  reproduced  shows  a  dramatic  performance 
being  given  before  Emperor  William  and  his  party. 
The  structure  is  well  proportioned  and  well  ar- 
ranged, and  may  well  prove  suggestive  to  the  build- 
ers of  garden  theatres  in  America. 

H.  Inigo  Triggs,  writing  of  the  gardens  of  Hol- 
land, and  especially  of  treillage-work,  says:  "Gar- 
den theatres  were  frequently  to  be  met  with.  That 
at  Westerwyck  was  quite  elaborate,  with  a  pro- 
scenium of  hornbeam  arranged  as  a  big  arch,  be- 
hind which  the  orchestra  sat  in  a  sunken  oval  arena 
adjoining  the  stage.  The  wings  were  of  hedges 
closely  trimmed  and  formed  backgrounds  to  a  series 
of  leaden  statues.  The  back  of  the  stage  was  a  per- 
manent architectural  [trellis-work]  composition. 
These  theatres  were  often  constructed  of  treillage, 
but  naturally  none  so  made  are  now  in  existence." 

The  American  theatre  that  approaches  closest  to 
the  Italian  type  is  that  on  the  estate  of  Mr.  Henry 
E.  Bothin  at  Montecito,  California.  This  little  play- 
house is,  indeed,  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  all  the 
examples  in  which  clipped  hedge  wings  are  used.  It 
is  clearly  inspired  by  that  at  Villa  Gori,  and  achieves 
something  of  the  same  purity  and  simplicity  of  de- 
sign. An  unusual  feature  is  the  half-circle  of  en- 
closed "boxes"  around  the  auditorium.  These  are 


ioo         THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

six  in  number,  each  one  seating  nine  people.  On  the 
auditorium  floor  there  is  room  for  one  hundred  spec- 
tators. 

Another  American  theatre  modelled  after  the  one 
at  Villa  Gori  is  that  at  "Ragdale,"  the  estate  of  Mr. 
and  Mrs.  Howard  Shaw,  at  Lake  Forest,  Illinois. 
Ragdale  Ring,  as  it  is  called,  originally  had  the  same 
arrangement  of  clipped  hedge  wings  and  back- 
ground. But  after  several  years  of  actual  experi- 
ence in  producing  plays,  the  owners  found  it  wise  to 
make  considerable  changes.  The  auditorium  is  still 
very  similar  to  that  of  the  Italian  theatre,  being  cir- 
cular and  surrounded  by  hedges ;  and  one  of  the  ap- 
proaches is  through  a  pleached  thorn  alley,  doubt- 
less suggested  by  that  at  Villa  Gori.  But  the  stage 
has  been  entirely  remodelled.  The  clipped  hedge 
wings  have  given  way  to  more  informal  arrange- 
ments of  deciduous  shrubs  and  trees,  and  the  con- 
ventional rear  wall  has  been  taken  out,  opening  up 
a  vista  into  a  sloping  glade.  In  this  way  the  stage 
depth  has  been  enlarged  from  the  original  inade- 
quate thirty  feet  to  ninety  feet;  and  thus  the  theatre 
has  been  made  a  much  more  fitting  setting  for 
pageant-like  plays,  spectacles  and  dances.  The  play- 
house is  more  suited  to  this  sort  of  production  than 
to  literary  or  intimate  drama,  because  it  was  unfor- 
tunately placed  at  a  spot  too  little  sheltered  from 


GARDEN  THEATRE  101 

the  winds,  the  acoustics  thus  being  interfered  with, 
and  the  sense  of  intimacy  to  some  degree  destroyed. 
The  stage  is  framed  at  the  front  by  two  twelve-foot 
columns.  Electric  lights  have  been  set  in  these  col-, 
umns,  on  the  stage  side,  and  other  lights  are  reflected 
from  the  wings,  all  being  regulated  from  a  switch- 
board in  the  auditorium.  The  effectiveness  of  the 
productions  has  depended  to  a  large  extent  upon  the 
lighting,  and  some  very  unusual  and  beautiful  effects 
have  been  created  with  vari-colored  lights.  At  the 
times  of  performances  sixteen  gaily  colored  masts 
are  set  in  sockets  in  the  wall  surrounding  the  audi- 
torium, and  on  these  are  hoisted  gonfalons  and  Chi- 
nese lanterns.  The  auditorium  floor  is  sunk  two 
and  one-half  feet  below  the  stage  level,  is  seventy 
feet  in  diameter,  and  seats  from  three  to  four  hun- 
dred people. 

Perhaps  the  finest  example  of  an  open-air  thea- 
tre perfectly  suited  to  the  unconventional  type  of 
American  garden  is  the  Brookside  Theatre,  at 
Mount  Kisco,  New  York.  Here  Miss  Martia 
Leonard  has  brought  into  being  a  little  playhouse 
that  affords  a  very  beautiful  setting  for  the  poetic 
drama.  The  stage  is  of  turf,  and  is  framed  by  the 
projecting  arms  of  a  pergola.  Unlike  the  stages  of 
most  outdoor  theatres,  this  one  can  be  curtained  by 
hangings  which  stretch  between  two  of  the  pergola 


102         THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

columns.  There  are  six  rising  tiers  of  rough  stone 
seats,  in  semi-circular  form,  and  the  surrounding 
lawn  affords  further  seating  room.  The  total  seat- 
ing capacity  is  perhaps  three  hundred  and  fifty.  The 
theatre  lies  in  a  narrow  valley,  and  the  high  hills  on 
either  side,  serving  as  walls,  create  a  sense  of  inti- 
macy that  is  impossible  to  obtain  in  most  outdoor 
playhouses ;  and  thus  there  have  been  presented  here 
successfully  several  "intimate"  modern  comedies, 
which  would  have  lost  all  their  effectiveness  in  the 
greater  spaciousness  of  the  average  open-air  theatre. 
Miss  Leonard  has  prepared  specially  adapted  ver- 
sions of  most  of  the  plays  presented,  and  has  di- 
rected all  the  details  of  production.  The  theatre 
was  opened  with  John  Jay  Chapman's  "The  Trea- 
son and  Death  of  Benedict  Arnold."  The  non- 
dramatic  productions  have  varied  greatly,  from 
cock-fights  on  the  one  hand  to  aesthetic  dancing  on 
the  other;  and  the  dramatic  productions  have  in- 
cluded Euripides'  "Electra,"  the  "Lysistrata"  of 
Aristophanes,  Rostand's  "The  Romanesque,"  Shake- 
speare's "Twelfth  Night"  and  "The  Taming  of  the 
Shrew,"  and  Maeterlinck's  "Aglavaine  and  Sely- 
sette."  The  value  of  the  presentation  of  these 
dramas,  which  so  seldom  are  seen  on  the  commer- 
cial stage,  cannot  be  doubted.  Altogether  the 
Brookside  Theatre  has  been  remarkably  successful 


ABOVE,  THE  BROOKSIDE  THEATRE,  AT  MT.  KISCO,  NEW  YORK. 
AN  EXAMPLE  OF  THE  DECORATIVE  USE  OF  PERGOLAS.  BELOW, 
THE  STAGE  OF  THE  GARDEN  TERRACE  THEATRE,  AT  YANKTON, 

SOUTH   DAKOTA. 


GARDEN  THEATRE  103 

artistically;  and  physically  it  is  one  of  the  most 
charming  of  all  its  kind.  It  might  well  serve  as  a 
model  for  the  owners  of  many  an  informal  Amer- 
ican estate. 

The  "Garden  Terrace  Theatre"  on  the  grounds 
of  Yankton  College,  South  Dakota,  is  unique  in  its 
combination  of  architectural  and  landscape  motives. 
It  very  well  carries  out  the  originators'  conception 
of  a  theatre  reflecting  the  spirit  of  Italian  romantic 
comedy,  and  especially  the  spirit  of  Shakespearean 
comedy.  An  official  bulletin  of  the  College,  describ- 
ing the  theatre,  is  worth  quoting:  "The  practical 
features  of  its  construction  were  developed  out  of 
the  experience  of  the  past  eight  years  of  the  College 
in  presenting  a  Shakespeare  play  out-of-doors  at 
commencement  time.  Those  features,  particularly 
the  structure  of  the  stage,  were  based  upon  the  stage 
of  Shakespeare's  time  in  London,  having  two  rear 
entrances  and  a  stage  balcony,  but  without  curtain  or 
wings  and  with  a  minimum  of  movable  properties. 
.  .  .  The  thing  is  essentially  an  Italian  garden,  in- 
closed by  formal  hedge  and  garden  wall,  with  a  ter- 
race for  the  stage  and  a  sloping  lawn  for  seating  the 
audience.  .  .  . 

"The  detail  plans  for  the  Yankton  garden  thea- 
tre were  prepared  by  Mr.  Phelps  Wyman  of  Minne- 
apolis, and  the  wall  architecture  by  A.  R.  VanDyke 


io4         THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

of  Minneapolis,  a  specialist  in  that  particular  field  of 
design.  .  .  .  The  theatre  enclosure,  which  consists 
of  hedge  and  garden  wall,  is  140x200  feet,  and 
will  seat  2500  spectators  within  perfect  view  and 
hearing  of  the  stage.  The  terrace,  or  stage  proper 
is  30  x  60  feet,  but  on  occasion  the  entire  stage  end 
of  the  garden,  an  area  50  x  140  feet,  may  be  used 
for  a  dramatic  scene  or  pageant  spectacle.  The  the- 
atre is  provided  with  complete  and  permanent  equip- 
ment for  electric  stage  lighting  and  illumination. 
The  seating  provided  is  light  folding  chairs  which 
are  removed  when  not  in  use,  leaving  the  seating  area 
a  beautiful  sloping  lawn.  A  fountain  at  the  rear 
centre  of  the  stage  will  be  one  of  the  ornamental 
features,  and  there  will  be  garden  seats  of  stone  or 
marble  and  other  ornamental  objects  of  sculpture  to 
carry  out  the  style  of  the  formal  Italian  garden." 

In  the  Lazienski  Gardens,  at  Warsaw,  Poland,  is 
a  unique  open-air  theatre,  which  at  least  approaches 
the  garden  or  park  type.  The  stage  has  been  con- 
structed on  an  island,  with  a  background  of  arti- 
ficial classic  ruins  against  high  trees.  Between  the 
front  stage  wall  and  the  auditorium  there  is  a  nar- 
row channel  of  water,  on  which  the  swans  may  sail 
in  from  the  adjoining  lake.  The  lower  auditorium 
is  formed  by  straight  rows  of  seats,  while  above 
there  is  a  semi-circular  opening  in  the  hillside,  with 


THE     OPEN-AIR     THEATRE     AT     LAZIENSKI      GARDENS, 
WARSAW,     POLAND. 


GARDEN  THEATRE  105 

additional  wooden  benches.  Surrounding  all  is  a 
masonry  wall  adorned  with  statues  at  regular  inter- 
vals. The  structure  is  more  notable  for  its  unique 
form  than  for  its  dramatic  activities. 

A  similar  blending  of  the  several  types  of  theatre, 
and  a  similar  arrangement  of  water  separating  stage 
and  auditorium,  are  to  be  found  in  the  Rosemary 
Theatre,  which  Mr.  Roland  R.  Conklin  has  con- 
structed on  his  estate  at  Huntington,  Long  Island. 
Here  the  concentric  rows  of  seats  clearly  follow  the 
Greek  theatre  system ;  but  the  stage  background  is  of 
the  nature  theatre  type;  while  the  formal  use  of 
groups  of  cedar  to  frame  the  stage  at  the  sides,  and 
the  more  or  less  formal  planting  around  the  audi- 
torium, would  seem  to  justify  inclusion  among  the 
garden  theatres.  The  seating  capacity — at  least 
four  thousand  spectators  can  be  accommodated — 
is  that  of  a  public  playhouse,  though  the  structure 
is  on  private  grounds.  Mr.  Conklin  has  kindly  sup- 
plied the  following  complete  description : 

"The  stage  is  separated  from  the  auditorium  by 
a  lagoon,  both  ends  of  which  are  hidden  by  trees 
and  shrubbery.  This  lagoon  is  fifteen  to  thirty  feet 
wide,  and  the  water  goes  into  it  over  a  cascade.  The 
terrace  next  to  the  water  is  slightly  lower  than  the 
stage  and  is  for  the  musicians.  There  are  four 
small  terraces  and  four  large  ones,  and  they  are  each 


io6         THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

built  from  boulders  gathered  on  the  farm.  In  the 
interstices  of  these  boulders  have  been  planted  from 
sixty  to  seventy  varieties  of  perennial  and  rock  flow- 
ers, arranged  in  groups  or  colonies  of  colors.  The 
stage  is  about  one  hundred  feet  in  width  and 
stretches  back  three  or  four  hundred  feet  in  the  for- 
est beyond.  There  are  no  proscenium  columns,  but 
I  have  planted  for  each  proscenium  a  group  of  three 
tall  cedars,  close  together,  about  twenty  feet  high. 
I  have  tried  to  work  out  everything  without  any  for- 
mal architectural  additions,  and  even  the  entrance  is 
made  from  cobble  stones  in  the  form  of  a  court, 
paved  with  flagging.  The  theatre  is  about  125  feet 
above  Oyster  Bay,  and  at  least  one-third  of  the  au- 
dience, when  seated,  can  look  out  over  Long  Island 
Sound  to  the  shores  of  Connecticut  fifteen  miles 
away.  Water  pipes  extend  around  each  terrace,  fit- 
ted with  irrigation  jets,  so  that  when  the  water  is 
turned  on  to  water  the  grass,  the  appearance  is  given 
of  the  fountains  of  Peterhoff.  Electric  wires  have 
been  laid  for  lighting  each  of  the  terraces  by  col- 
ored globes  hidden  in  the  foliage.  There  are  three 
spot  lights  from  the  auditorium  and  arrangements 
for  several  spot  lights  on  the  stage.  The  electrical 
arrangements  are  such  as  to  include  also  a  dimmer 
so  that  the  lights  can  be  turned  on  or  off  gradually 
to  give  the  appearance  of  twilight.  There  are  out- 


THE    ROSEMARY   THEATRE,   AT   HUNTINGTON,    LONG   ISLAND, 

NEW    YORK. 


GARDEN  THEATRE  107 

lets  arranged  for  over  two  thousand  electric  lights." 
Although  structurally  the  Rosemary  Theatre,  on 
account  of  its  unique  form,  is  one  of  the  most  in- 
teresting of  American  playhouses,  it  has  seldom  been 
tested  for  fitness  to  purpose.  Before  its  construc- 
tion, the  natural  site  was  utilized  successfully  for  a 
production  of  "As  You  Like  It,"  but  the  structure 
was  not  completed  until  the  summer  of  1914,  and  up 
to  the  time  of  writing,  no  productions  had  been  given 
in  the  theatre.  Professional  companies  will  appear 
only  for  the  sake  of  charity,  but  the  theatre  will  be 
widely  utilized  for  amateur  and  social  affairs. 

A  garden  theatre  in  which  some  of  the  natural 
beauties  of  the  site  have  been  preserved  exists  in  the 
lovely  playhouse  of  Mrs.  William  Miller  Graham 
at  Montecito,  California.  Here  the  old  oaks  and 
the  more  or  less  natural  stage  background  would  give 
the  theatre  a  claim  to  be  included  in  the  "nature" 
group.  But  the  conventional  stage-wall  and  steps, 
the  marble  bench  that  so  well  centres  the  interest  of 
the  spectator,  and  the  row  of  slender  cypresses  at  the 
back,  all  are  earmarks  of  the  garden  type.  Behind 
the  stage  there  is  a  little  hedged-in  "green  room," 
and  close  by,  in  the  garden,  are  an  al  fresco  Italian 
dining-room  and  a  grill. 

At  Tarrytown,  New  York,  Mrs.  Charles  Judson 
Gould  has  built  a  little  playhouse  that  shows  a  curi- 


108         THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

ous  mingling  of  Greek  theatre  and  garden  theatre 
motives.  Although  called  a  Greek  theatre  there  is 
little  beside  the  seat  arrangement  that  is  truly 
Greek.  There  are  four  rows  of  seats,  solidly  con- 
structed of  stone  quarried  on  the  spot,  in  the  typical 
classic  form  of  rising  semi-circular  rings.  This  au- 
ditorium will  hold  about  one  hundred  people,  but 
several  hundred  more  can  find  places  on  the  sloping 
meadow  at  the  back.  There  is  no  raised  stage,  but 
merely  a  rectangular  extension  of  the  "orchestra" 
floor,  surrounded  on  three  sides  by  a  low  masonry 
wall,  with  three  massive  columns  at  the  back.  Be- 
hind, the  woods  make  a  charming  background;  but 
it  is  possible  to  erect  "scenery"  against  the  columns 
if  desired.  The  chief  drawback  of  the  theatre  as  a 
setting  for  drama  is  the  paucity  of  entrances.  There 
is  only  one  entrance  to  the  stage — which  will  hardly 
meet  the  demands  of  the  usual  dramatic  production. 
The  structure  is  an  ideal  place  for  music  and  lectures, 
and  has  been  so  used  many  times;  and  at  least  one 
play  has  been  presented  quite  successfully.  But  it 
would  be  unwise  to  copy  the  type,  if  one  had  the  pro- 
duction of  plays  in  mind  as  a  primary  end. 

There  are  many  gardens  in  which  stage  and  audi- 
torium can  be  improvised  and  passable  productions 
given  without  the  actual  construction  of  anything 
worthy  the  name  of  theatre.  Sloping  lawns,  archi- 


GARDEN  THEATRE  109 

tectural  terraces,  open  hollows — all  these  have  been 
utilized  for  amateur  performances  time  and  again. 
There  are  few  large  estates  that  do  not  include  some 
such  suitable  spot  for  outdoor  acting.  But  even  the 
most  unpretentious  of  garden  theatres  is  far  more 
satisfying  than  the  mere  improvised  stage  and  pit. 
For  if  the  designer  has  done  his  work  well,  the  thea- 
tre will  afford  each  spectator  a  perfect  view  of  the 
stage,  the  actors  will  have  facilities  for  changing  cos- 
tumes and  for  perfectly  timed  entrances,  there  will 
be  no  glare  of  sunlight  in  any  one's  eyes,  and  there 
will  not  be  a  vista  behind  the  stage  that  will  con- 
tinually tend  to  draw  the  attention  from  the  action. 
There  will  be,  in  short,  a  perfect  background  for  the 
play,  and  the  maximum  of  comfort  for  the  audience. 
At  this  time  when  most  of  our  young  people< — and 
many  who  are  only  dramatically  young — are  inter- 
ested in  some  measure  in  amateur  dramatic  societies, 
or  in  school  or  college  dramatic  clubs,  or  merely  in 
dramatic  affairs  in  general,  there  are  few  cities  where 
a  small  open-air  theatre  in  a  large  private  garden  or 
in  a  public  park  would  not  in  a  single  season  more 
than  justify  the  initial  construction  cost.  All  those 
amateur  performances  "for  friends  only,"  the  pro- 
ductions of  the  several  travelling  bands  of  profes- 
sional outdoor  actors,  the  occasional  play-entertain- 
ments of  the  women's  clubs,  even  the  frequent 


I  io         THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

dramatic  readings — they  all  would  gain  a  new  beauty 
and  a  new  significance  if  carried  from  the  usual  sur- 
roundings to  the  garden  theatre. 

The  spreading  of  the  outdoor  dramatic  move- 
ment goes  deeper  than  the  mere  matter  of  amuse- 
ment; and  the  owner  of  a  garden  theatre  possesses 
more  than  a  pleasing  toy.  The  growth  of  the  open- 
air  playhouse  is  a  very  real  part  of  the  nation-wide 
protest  against  the  commercialization  of  the  regular 
theatre,  and  an  indication  of  a  desire  for  sounder 
and  less  artificial  dramatic  fare.  The  amateur  and 
semi-professional  performances  are  training  more 
discriminating  audiences  for  the  true  art  that  will  in- 
evitably take  larger  place  in  the  future  professional 
theatres ;  moreover  they  are  moulding  the  talents  of 
many  a  native  playwright  and  actor  of  the  years  to 
come — for  if  the  work  in  play  be  wide  enough  and 
sincere  enough,  very  surely  here  and  there  an  ama- 
teur artist  will  graduate  to  the  wider  dramatic 
world.  The  garden  theatre  may,  indeed,  become  a 
very  significant  force  for  good,  not  only  for  a  few 
individuals,  but  for  society  and  for  dramatic  art  in 
general. 


GARDEN    THEATRE    ON    THE     ESTATE    OF    MRS.    WILLIAM    MILLER 
GRAHAM,    AT   MONTECITO,    CALIFORNIA. 


CHAPTER  VII 

THE  DRAMA  OF  THE  OPEN 

THE  casual  commentator  is  only  too  likely 
to  describe  one  specific  type  of  produc- 
tion as  the  most  characteristic,  if  not  the 
only  true,  form  of  outdoor  drama.  Thus  one  finds 
that  those  who  have  directed  productions  in  the 
Hearst  Greek  Theatre  at  Berkeley  consider  a  simple, 
almost  austere  play  the  most  typical  form,  while  the 
pageant-masters  of  the  East  and  the  group  of 
masque-writers  of  the  Middle  West  consider  the 
spectacular,  pageant-like  production  the  truest  out- 
door drama ;  and  then  comes  the  owner  of  a  garden 
theatre  with  a  very  deep  conviction,  born  of  experi- 
ence, that  neither  of  these  forms  is  typical,  and  that 
the  poetic,  the  romantic  and  the  literary  drama  alone 
are  perfectly  suited  for  production  in  the  open.  The 
difference  of  opinion  arises  from  the  lack  of  under- 
standing that  there  are  several  distinct  types  of  open- 
air  theatre,  each  with  its  individual  limitations  and 
advantages.  Every  study  of  the  drama  of  the  open 
should  be  prefaced  by  the  statement  that  no  one 

in 


ii2         THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

open-air  theatre  can  adequately  house  more  than  one 
of  several  distinct  types  of  production;  and  the 
builders  of  open-air  playhouses  will  do  well  to  study 
carefully  the  probable  type  of  play  to  be  given,  be- 
fore deciding  upon  the  style  of  theatre  to  be  con- 
structed. 

Certain  general  characteristics,  nevertheless,  per- 
tain to  all  productions  out-of-doors.  If  there  is  one 
quality  that,  more  than  any  other,  distinguishes  the 
drama  of  the  open  from  the  indoor  drama,  it  is  gen- 
uineness. In  the  successful  outdoor  production  the 
play,  the  setting  and  the  acting  must  above  all  else 
be  simple  and  sincere.  The  whole  must  be  lit  up  by 
a  certain  joyousness  in  life,  and  interpreted  with  a 
sympathetic  understanding  of  the  openness  and  free- 
dom of  nature.  The  producer  can  take  out-of-doors 
only  the  sort  of  drama  that  can  stand  the  clear  white 
light  of  day;  the  "white-slave"  play,  the  bombas- 
tic melodrama  and  the  intimate  "society"  comedy 
show  forth  only  too  clearly  in  the  open  air  their  ele- 
ments of  artificiality.  Moreover,  certain  really 
vital  developments  of  the  indoor  drama  lose  their 
effectiveness  in  the  open  through  the  lack  of  inti- 
macy there;  the  play  of  sustained  emotional  inter- 
est, the  play  that  depends  for  its  appeal  primarily 
upon  climactic  story  growth  and  emotional  tension, 
fails  because  absolute  and  continued  concentration 


THE  DRAMA  OF  THE  OPEN       113 

of  attention  is  impossible  in  the  open-air.  The  typ- 
ically effective  al  fresco  drama  is  simple,  decorative 
and  poetic,  rather  than  intricate,  realistic  or  in- 
tensely emotional. 

Beyond  this  general  division  line,  one  can  easily 
identify  three  distinct  sorts  of  production  in  the 
open-air  group :  first,  the  simple,  stately  play  of  com- 
pact action  and  broad  spiritual  significance,  of  which 
the  Greek  tragedies  are  the  finest  examples;  second, 
the  play  that  depends  primarily  upon  the  sensuous 
beauty  of  line  and  mass  and  color,  the  drama  of 
decorative  movement,  of  which  the  more  dramatic 
forms  of  pageant  and  dance  are  typical;  and  third, 
the  drama  rich  in  beautiful  poetry,  the  play  in  which 
an  imaginative  story  is  embroidered  with  beauty  of 
language  and  incidental  verse  and  fantasy  of  thought. 
The  three  primary  elements  thus  suggested,  the  sim- 
ple stateliness  of  action,  the  decorative  beauty  of 
movement  and  color,  and  the  poetic  richness  of  lan- 
guage and  thought,  are  in  some  measure  mingled  in 
all  successful  productions.  But  the  emphasis  on  one 
or  another  of  these  elements  may  be  made  the  basis 
of  a  distinction  between  the  three  dramatic  types, 
which  in  turn  correspond  very  closely  to  the  three 
general  types  of  open-air  theatre.  The  Greek 
tragedies  of  course  are  perfectly  suited  to  produc- 
tion on  the  massive,  severely  beautiful  stage  of  the 


ii4         THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

classic  theatre ;  the  pageant-like  play,  in  which  move- 
ment and  dancing  and  beautiful  costuming  are  of 
more  importance  than  plot  or  richness  of  language, 
is  characteristically  the  play  of  the  nature  theatre, 
with  its  wide  background  of  trees  or  meadow  or 
water,  and  its  auditorium  of  maximum  openness; 
whereas  the  poetic  play  is  typically  the  play  of  the 
intimate  garden  theatre,  in  which  every  subtle  tone 
and  delicate  facial  expression,  and  every  nuance  of 
thought  and  feeling,  has  its  full  effect. 

More  than  one  producer  with  a  glittering  reputa- 
tion on  Broadway  has  failed  dismally  when  he 
brought  his  "art"  to  the  stage  of  a  Greek  theatre. 
The  history  of  the  Hearst  Greek  Theatre  especially 
is  replete  with  records  of  the  unsuccessful  efforts  of 
professional  stage-managers  to  "put  over"  the  ef- 
fects they  have  achieved  so  cunningly  within  doors. 
In  staging  the  old  Greek  plays,  which  of  course  are 
perfectly  fitted  to  the  limitations  of  the  theatre,  the 
greatest  possible  economy  of  means  is  necessary. 
The  subterfuges  of  the  professional  stage  become 
transparent  and  detract  from,  rather  than  add  to,  the 
production.  The  sustained  nobility  and  the  almost 
severe  loveliness  of  the  tragedies  must  be  reflected 
in  a  certain  stateliness  and  breadth  of  staging  and 
acting.  Everything  must  be  carried  out  in  large 
mass,  or  the  play  is  lost  on  the  immense  stage.  At 


THE  DRAMA  OF  THE  OPEN       115 

the  Hearst  Greek  Theatre  perhaps  the  most  succes- 
ful  of  all  the  ten  years'  productions  have  been  Mar- 
garet Anglin's  presentations  of  Greek  masterpieces. 
The  student  productions  of  Sophocles'  "Ajax"  and 
"CEdipus  Tyrannus,"  although  less  polished, 
achieved  much  of  the  same  dignified  effect.  Plays 
given  in  the  same  theatre  that  were  successful  be- 
cause they  have  the  Greek  breadth  and  dignity  to  a 
certain  extent,  were  Ben  Greet's  "Hamlet,"  Sarah 
Bernhardt's  "Phedre,"  and  Maude  Adams'  "L'Aig- 
lon."  Of  humorous  plays  it  has  been  found  that 
Shakespeare's  "The  Merry  Wives  of  Windsor"  and 
Dekker's  "The  Shoemakers'  Holiday,"  with  their 
broad  caricature  and  rollicking  fun,  carry  to  the  au- 
dience far  better  than  do  the  subtler  and  more  refined 
types  of  comedy.  Aside  from  the  play  that  domi- 
nates the  Greek  theatre  by  the  largeness  of  its  spirit- 
ual significance  and  the  sustained  quality  of  its  dra- 
matic effects,  there  is  a  sort  that  succeeds  by  compel- 
ling visual  attention  through  concentrated  spectacle 
and  pageantry.  One  thinks  immediately  of  Max 
Reinhardt  and  his  productions  in  a  circus.  Just  as  he 
dominated  the  immense  spaces  of  the  tent-like  struc- 
ture by  compelling  the  attention  of  the  eye  and  sur- 
face senses  every  minute,  so  the  producer  in  the 
Greek  theatre  can  hold  his  audiences  if  the  visual 
elements  are  decorative  and  sweeping  enough.  The 


n6         THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

trouble  in  working  with  this  sort  of  Reinhardtian 
spectacular  simplicity  is  the  difficulty  of  sustaining 
the  interest — for  a  moment's  let-down  is  fatal  to  the 
total  effect.  At  the  Berkeley  theatre  the  produc- 
tion that  most  successfully  achieved  this  visual  ef- 
fectiveness was  the  Sanskrit  drama  "The  Little 
Clay  Cart."  Other  plays  have  been  saved  from 
merely  boring  the  audiences  by  being  framed  in  spec- 
tacular scenes,  with  a  procession  here,  a  "mob 
scene"  there,  and  a  gorgeous  tableau  to  leave  a  vivid 
impression  at  the  end. 

In  entering  upon  a  discussion  of  the  type  of  drama 
suited  to  production  in  the  nature  theatre  one 
plunges  immediately  into  the  question  of  the  relative 
values  of  play  and  pageant.  Considered  entirely 
from  the  standpoint  of  permanent  dramatic  art,  the 
play,  the  pure  drama,  is  far  more  important  than  the 
pageant.  For  the  play  text,  perpetuated  in  book 
form,  may  be  reproduced  on  the  stage  for  the  pleas- 
ure and  inspiration  of  succeeding  generations, 
whereas  the  pageant  is  gone  for  all  time  when  the 
end  of  the  final  procession  passes  off  the  stage.  In 
this  sense  the  play  is  like  the  statue  in  marble  or  last- 
ing bronze,  whereas  the  pageant  is  like  a  figure  mod- 
elled in  sand,  to  be  washed  away  and  lost  to  the 
world  with  the  coming  of  the  next  tide.  But  in  the 
direction  of  civic  betterment  the  pageant  is  by  far 


THE  DRAMA  OF  THE  OPEN       117 

the  more  important  form.  It  draws  large  numbers 
of  people  into  a  common  artistic  pursuit,  and  in  its 
symbolism  and  historic  allusions  it  tends  to  awaken 
civic  consciousness.  Considered  as  art  alone  the 
pageant  is  usually  ephemeral,  but  as  a  communal  ex- 
pression and  inspiration  it  is  one  of  the  most  sig- 
nificant developments  of  modern  life. 

It  is  not  within  the  scope  of  this  volume  to  de- 
scribe the  recent  remarkable  growth  of  the  pageant 
in  America  and  elsewhere,  or  to  point  out  the  sev- 
eral variations  in  its  form.  But  it  is  worth  while  to 
pause  to  enquire  why  the  pageant  is  typically  the 
form  of  production  suited  to  the  nature  theatre,  and 
especially  to  the  sort  of  theatre  that  has  a  stage  open- 
ing on  a  wide  vista  of  lake  or  sea  or  meadow.  The 
story-thread  of  the  pageant  is  at  best  a  series  of  de- 
tached fragments,  without  any  dramatic  or  emo- 
tional continuity,  and  the  spectator's  interest  is  held 
primarily  by  the  spectacle.  So  anything  that  adds 
to  the  visual  beauty,  whether  it  is  the  clouds  floating 
over  a  distant  mountain  peak,  or  an  unusual  bit  of 
woodland  light  and  shade,  or  a  broad  sweep  of  water 
framed  in  trees,  is  just  so  much  clear  gain  from  the 
producer's  standpoint.  As  the  lover  of  pageants 
turns  his  mjnd  back,  the  things  that  stand  out  most 
vividly  and  most  satisfyingly  are  the  groups  of  gaily 
caparisoned  horsemen  that  sweep  into  sight  and 


n8         THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

across  the  stage  so  impressively,  or  the  picturesque 
galleons  floating  in  to  the  stage  landing  across  a 
lake,  or  the  dances  in  leaf-strewn  meadows  before 
stately  groves  of  trees.  Not  only  are  these  things 
impossible  in  the  Greek  theatre  and  the  garden  thea- 
tre, but  if  they  could  be  staged  there  they  would  dis- 
turb rather  than  increase  the  total  effectiveness. 
For  in  the  typical  Greek  theatre  play  there  is  defi- 
nite dramatic  unity,  and  in  the  typical  garden  thea- 
tre play  there  is  at  least  definite  poetic  unity;  and  in 
either,  the  striking  "episode"  of  the  pageant  would 
be  a  ruinous  interruption.  But  not  so  in  the  nature 
theatre — for  the  very  openness  of  the  stage,  and  the 
diversity  of  background,  and  the  vistas,  preclude 
concentration  of  attention.  The  whole  interest  is 
necessarily  episodic;  and  the  success  of  the  episodes 
depends  largely  upon  the  extent  to  which  the  char- 
acteristic beauties  of  nature  are  utilized.  So  the 
nature  theatre  alone  affords  a  perfect  setting  for  the 
pageant,  and  for  the  "drama  of  decorative  move- 
ment," for  the  drama  wherein  dancing,  and  costum- 
ing, and  the  effects  of  nature,  are  of  more  impor- 
tance than  dramatic  story  and  poetry. 

Of  course  no  two  nature  theatres  are  exactly  alike, 
and  the  type  of  production  that  fits  one  may  lose  half 
its  effectiveness  when  staged  in  another  nearby. 
There  are  even  nature  theatres  that  demand  specific 


THE  DRAMA  OF  THE  OPEN       119 

types  of  drama  that  never  would  be  satisfying  else- 
where ;  the  Bohemian  Grove  Plays,  for  instance,  are 
a  direct  outgrowth  of  the  narrow  limitations  and 
unusual  advantages  of  the  one  theatre.  In  discuss- 
ing the  typical  production  of  the  nature  theatre,  the 
playhouse  of  maximum  openness,  such  as  the  Peter- 
borough and  St.  Louis  pageant  theatres  and  the 
Tamalpais  Mountain  Theatre,  have  been  considered 
as  the  truest  examples.  But  certain  of  the  nature 
theatres  approach  the  garden  theatre  type,  as  when 
they  are  small  and  more  or  less  enclosed,  or  when 
they  have  stages  shaped  more  or  less  architecturally 
for  formal  exits  and  entrances.  Most  of  the  Euro- 
pean nature  theatres  have  certain  characteristic  fea- 
tures of  the  garden  stage,  probably  because  the  Eu- 
ropean producer  finds  it  harder  to  break  away  from 
the  traditions  of  the  indoor  theatre  as  the  Amer- 
icans have  done  at  Peterborough,  and  in  the  Bo- 
hemian Grove,  and  on  Mount  Tamalpais.  In 
America  the  Forest  Theatre  at  Carmel  is  really  an 
example  of  the  mixed  type,  like  the  "Nature  Thea- 
tre" at  Hertenstein  and  the  Klampenborg  Woods 
Theatre;  and  the  stage  at  the  Meriden  Theatre  is 
so  far  enclosed  by  trees  that  its  advantages  and  lim- 
itations are  those  of  the  garden  theatre  rather  than 
of  the  true  nature  theatre. 

It  is  the  highly  imaginative  and  the  subtly  poetic 


120         THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

drama  that  is  most  perfectly  suited  to  the  garden 
theatre :  the  play  with  the  primary  appeal  of  a  pretty 
tale  richly  embroidered  with  fanciful  conceits  and 
literary  beauty.  In  the  garden  theatre  there  is  a 
feeling  of  seclusion  from  the  vulgarities  of  the 
world,  which  creates  a  new  and  delicious  intimacy  be- 
tween players  and  spectators.  No  change  of  posi- 
tion, no  shade  of  meaning,  no  physical  expression, 
no  half-spoken  word,  is  lost.  Every  whimsical  turn 
of  expression,  every  symbolic  suggestion,  every  inci- 
dental lyric  poem,  has  its  full  value.  And  here  the 
slow  action  of  the  loosely  joined  play,  which  only 
bores  in  the  indoor  playhouse,  becomes  tolerable  if 
only  the  poetry  is  rich  enough  and  the  fantasy  fan- 
ciful enough.  The  intoxicating  sense  of  out-of- 
doors  and  the  caressing  atmosphere  of  lawns  and 
flowers  and  trees,  creeping  into  the  heart  and  mind, 
make  possible  the  comprehension  of  elusive  poetic 
thoughts  and  feelings  that  vanish  entirely  in  the 
larger  sorts  of  playhouse. 

The  ideal  plays  for  the  garden  theatre  and  the 
intimate  sort  of  nature  theatre  are  of  the  type  of 
Shakespeare's  fantastic  comedies  and  Maeterlinck's 
poetic  tragedies.  The  idyllic  "As  You  Like  It,"  and 
the  fanciful  "A  Midsummer  Night's  Dream,"  which 
never  satisfy  completely  in  the  incongruous  setting 
of  the  indoor  "stage  artist,"  find  here  their  natural 


THE  DRAMA  OF  THE  OPEN       121 

accompaniment  of  sunshine  and  shadow,  of  whis- 
pering winds  and  singing  birds,  and  at  the  same  time 
the  necessary  intimate  atmosphere.  And  "Twelfth 
Night"  gains  a  new  charm  and  effectiveness  when 
staged  under  the  open  sky.  Milton's  "Comus"  is 
typically  an  outdoor  play,  and  yet  not  a  play  for 
the  extensive  sort  of  open-air  theatre.  Maeter- 
linck's richly  poetic  dramas  are  for  the  most  part 
adapted  to  presentation  out-of-doors:  "Pelleas  and 
Melisande"  surely  would  have  a  more  pathetic  ap- 
peal in  a  garden  theatre  than  on  the  usual  tawdry 
artificial  stage ;  and  some  of  the  seldom  acted  plays, 
like  "Aglavaine  and  Selysette"  have  found  their 
loveliest  interpretation  in  the  open.  Those  literary 
plays  whose  beauty  is  too  reflective  and  whose  ac- 
tion is  too  slow  to  make  them  effective  indoors, 
might  well  be  revived  in  a  garden  playhouse:  the 
several  dramas  of  Tennyson,  and  Browning's  won- 
derful dramatic  poems ;  and  of  contemporary  work, 
the  plays  of  Stephen  Phillips  and  Alfred  Noyes. 
Many  of  these  compositions  must  be  judiciously 
adapted,  and  usually  cut,  but  nearly  always  the  re- 
sulting outdoor  version  brings  forth  beauties  unex- 
pected in  the  reading  of  the  original.  Carrying  the 
work  of  adaptation  a  step  further,  many  of  the 
longer  poems  of  Browning,  and  Keats,  and  Longfel- 
low, and  others  of  the  great  poets,  can  be  very  ac- 


122         THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

ceptably  dramatized  by  amateurs  with  the  "dramatic 
sense."  The  idyllic  garden  theatre  somehow  seems 
perfectly  fitted  to  the  presentation  of  such  poetic 
adaptations,  and  also  to  the  production  of  those 
plays  by  amateur  dramatists,  that  so  often  are  slight 
in  thought  and  lacking  in  the  powerful  emotional 
climaxes  of  the  indoor  intensive  drama,  and  which 
yet  have  an  occasional  lyric  beauty  and  imaginative 
charm  that  are  very  real  and — out-of-doors — very 
appealing. 

Returning  to  the  consideration  of  al  fresco  drama 
as  a  whole,  one  may  well  enquire  into  the  peculiar 
qualities  necessary  in  the  actual  mounting  and  acting 
of  the  drama  out-of-doors. 

The  setting  of  the  open-air  production  must  above 
all  be  simple,  and  the  "properties"  on  the  stage  must 
be  few.  Whether  the  background  is  the  beautiful 
architectural  wall  of  a  Greek  Theatre  or  the  mass 
of  trees  and  shrubs  or  open  vista  of  the  nature  or 
garden  theatre,  there  is  little  that  man's  hand  can 
add  to  make  the  setting  more  satisfying — little,  in- 
deed, that  can  be  added  without  making  the  whole 
ridiculous.  All  the  false  perfection  of  realistic  de- 
tail and  all  the  extravagance  of  canvas  and  paint  and 
tinsel  that  have  marked  recent  indoor  staging,  prove 
doubly  futile  in  the  creation  of  illusion  out-of-doors. 


A  PRODUCTION  IN  THE  BOHEMIAN  GROVE  THEATRE,  SHOWING  THE 

EFFECT  OF  ARTIFICIAL  SETTING  IN  A  NATURE  THEATRE. 

[PHOTOGRAPH  BY  GABRIEL  MOULIN] 


THE  DRAMA  OF  THE  OPEN       123 

In  the  drama  of  the  open,  more  than  in  any  other 
sort,  suggestion  is  the  only  method  by  which  true 
artistic  illusion  can  be  achieved.  If  the  director  un- 
derstands perfectly  the  manipulation  of  his  materi- 
als, a  curtain  stretched  between  two  poles  on  a  lawn, 
with  a  single  massive  chair  before  it,  can  be  made 
more  suggestive  of  a  throne-room  than  the  most  la- 
bored efforts  of  the  indoor  stage  designer.  Thus  a 
single  bit  of  plastic  background,  or  a  single  stage 
"property"  seen  in  its  own  embodiment  and  not  as 
a  painted  semblance,  may  evoke  in  the  spectator's 
mind  the  exact  atmosphere  required  by  the  action; 
whereas  the  usual  collection  of  painted  canvas  scenes 
and  make-believe  properties  can  at  best  imitate  only 
the  hard  reality  of  a  place,  and  never  its  subtle  at- 
mosphere. The  outdoor  setting,  insofar  as  it  is  ar- 
tificial at  all,  must  be  simple  rather  than  involved, 
plastic  instead  of  pictured — genuine  in  every  sense. 

In  the  nature  theatres  there  has  been  a  wholesome 
tendency  to  leave  Nature  alone  as  a  background,  and 
even  to  make  natural  beauties  a  compelling  part  of 
the  total  effect.  Of  this  utilization  of  Nature's  ma- 
terials, of  what  may  be  called  the  collaboration  of 
Nature  in  stage  production,  Professor  Thomas  H. 
Dickinson  has  written : 

"The  discovery  of  the  dramatic  values  of  the  fea- 
tures of  nature  is  distinctly  a  modern  thing.  These 


124         THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

are  now  recognized  not  only  as  expedients  for  the 
securing  of  primitive  effects,  but  as  mediums,  which, 
when  handled  with  understanding  and  cunning,  are 
capable  of  some  of  the  richest  and  most  elusive  ef- 
fects in  all  the  domain  of  art.  The  phenomena  of 
nature  and  natural  objects  are  the  most  adaptable, 
rich  and  suggestive  mediums  within  reach  of  man's 
hand.  In  versatility,  and  yet  in  fidelity  to  type,  in 
variety  of  responsiveness  and  amenability  to  an  ex- 
act requirement  no  color  or  line  provided  by  the 
hand  of  man  can  compete  with  nature  if  she  is  prop- 
erly schooled.  The  color  values  of  trees,  lake,  and 
meadow,  the  shadows  thrown  by  trees  and  clouds, 
the  light  of  moon  and  stars,  the  varying  outline  of 
trees  and  hills  as  seen  through  the  changing  palpa- 
bilities of  atmosphere  provide  infinite  material  for 
the  stage  director.  Nature  makes  no  mistakes. 
Chameleon-like  she  adapts  herself  to  the  action.  It 
would  be  impossible  for  a  bird  to  sing  in  the  wrong 
place  in  'As  You  Like  It.'  The  interspersed  si- 
lences* and  insect  voices  of  the  night  are  both  fitly 
chosen  for  their  parts." 

Nature,  it  may  be  added,  is  sometimes  an  unex- 
pected collaborator — and  curiously  enough  the  un- 
expected incidents  usually  fit  in  as  perfectly  as  if  the 
stage  director  had  released  them  through  his  electric 
switchboard.  Professor  Dickinson  notes  that  "even 


THE  DRAMA  OF  THE  OPEN       125 

the  falling  stars  seem  to  be  exquisitely  timed" ;  and 
one  easily  recalls  times  when  distant  thunder  added 
its  effective  voice  to  that  of  a  tragic  actor;  and  at 
least  once  the  sun  has  become  properly  clouded  at 
just  the  moment  when  the  twilight  nymphs  com- 
menced their  dance. 

It  has  been  hotly  debated  whether  the  open-air 
theatre  should  be  utilized  only  in  the  daytime,  or  at 
night  with  artificial  lighting.  There  can  be  no 
doubt  that  the  lighting  effects  entail  the  loss  of  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  the  naturalness  that  is  one  of  the  out- 
door drama's  most  pleasing  qualities,  and  that  they 
smack  strongly  of  the  hackneyed  elements  of  indoor 
staging.  On  the  other  hand  there  is  a  compensat- 
ing gain  in  the  richness  of  coloring  and  decorative 
play  of  light  and  shade  that  cannot  be  achieved  in 
daylight.  Some  of  the  typically  outdoor  plays  seem 
uncompromisingly  to  demand  a  night  sky  and  arti- 
ficial lights,  as  "A  Midsummer  Night's  Dream"  and 
"Comus."  It  can  be  concluded  only  that  each  sort 
of  performance  has  its  distinctive  virtues,  and  that 
while  the  afternoon  production  may  achieve  a  maxi- 
mum of  open,  natural  beauty,  the  night  production 
may  bring  out  more  decorative  and  more  colorful 
effects. 

Like  the  play  and  the  setting,  the  outdoor  actor 
must  be  free  from  the  artificiality  of  the  indoor 


126         THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

stage ;  must  be  sincere  and  genuine  in  the  best  sense. 
Freedom  from  the  indoor  mannerisms  and  conven- 
tions is  imperative;  the  "society  manner"  will  never 
carry  on  the  outdoor  stage.  In  a  peculiar  sense  the 
actor  must  "live"  his  part,  and  he  must  have  perfect 
sympathy  with  and  a  subtle  understanding  of  the 
open-air  stage  atmosphere.  For  the  actor  of  true 
artistic  perception  there  is,  moreover,  a  very  deep 
inspiration  in  the  setting  under  the  open  sky,  a  sort 
of  exhilaration  of  soul  and  body.  Margaret  Anglin 
gave  expression  to  this  inspirational  feeling  after 
she  played  "Antigone"  in  the  Hearst  Greek  Thea- 
tre. She  said :  "The  experience  of  playing  in  that 
wonderful  theatre  in  California  is,  I  believe,  the 
greatest  mental  intoxicant  that  an  actor  can  feel. 
For  myself — and  I  have  played  many  parts — I  have 
never  known  anything  to  equal  the  thrill  of  the  per- 
formance at  Berkeley  three  years  ago.  The  air  was 
so  still  and  so  heavy  with  perfume,  and  the  stars  so 
bright  and  so  near  the  earth,  with  one  radiant  planet 
hanging  just  above  the  altar,  that  it  was  no  great 
task  to  span  the  centuries  and  believe  oneself  beneath 
Attic  skies;  and  this  same  exaltation  (I  don't  know 
how  else  to  name  it)  seemed  to  seize  the  whole  com- 
pany. The  usual  'first-night'  hysterical  excitement 
was  utterly  absent,  and  in  its  place  came  an  extraor- 
dinary calm  which  seemed  almost  religious.  When 


THE  DRAMA  OF  THE  OPEN       127 

it  was  all  over,  I  believe  I  was  happier  than  I  had 
ever  been  before  in  my  work." 

Just  as  the  pure  poetry  of  a  play  may  be  enjoyed 
in  the  open-air,  although  it  may  only  bore  the  audi- 
ence indoors,  so  the  actors'  beautiful  intonation  of 
the  lines  may  be  enjoyed  for  its  own  sake  out-of- 
doors.  The  slurring  voice  and  the  careless  enuncia- 
tion of  many  professional  actors  are  doubly  offensive 
to  the  trained  ear  in  an  open-air  production.  Per- 
haps it  is  because  the  greater  emotional  tension  of  the 
indoor  drama  holds  the  attention  beyond  the  re- 
membrance of  mere  carelessness  of  speech;  or  per- 
haps it  is  because  out-of-doors  the  spectator's  per- 
ceptions are  keener  and  quicker  to  note  any  lapse  to 
commonplaceness  or  any  rise  to  new  beauties;  but 
certainly  beautiful  intonation  is  more  pleasing  and 
careless  speech  more  offensive  here  than  on  the  ordi- 
nary stage.  It  seems,  too,  that  the  "star  system," 
which  has  done  so  much  to  discourage  sincere 
dramatic  effort  in  America,  is  peculiarly  out  of  place 
in  the  open.  One  reason  is  that  the  "star"  usually 
depends  for  her  popularity  upon  the  interpretation 
of  a  climactic  emotional  part,  and  that  sort  of  part 
usually  is  not  characteristic  of  the  drama  of  the 
open.  The  system,  moreover,  is  so  undemocratic 
that  it  seems  entirely  out  of  keeping  with  the  more 
democratic  forms  of  dramatic  art. 


128         THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

The  special  sympathies  and  abilities  required  in 
the  successful  actor  out-of-doors  have  led  to  the 
formation  of  companies  of  open-air  players,  which 
each  year  travel  from  community  to  community  pre- 
senting plays  in  the  few  permanent  open-air  theatres, 
or  in  improvised  settings  on  lawns,  in  woods  and  in 
gardens.  The  first  important  company  of  this  sort 
in  America  was  that  organized  by  Ben  Greet,  who 
has  pioneered  in  many  of  the  really  valuable  and 
progressive  movements  of  the  theatre. 

The  best  known  of  the  present  bands  of  open-air 
actors  is  that  organized  by  Charles  Douville  Coburn. 
From  April  to  August  of  each  year  the  Coburn 
Players  travel  through  the  Eastern  and  Middle 
Western  States,  appearing  at  universities,  schools 
and  country  clubs.  Their  repertoire  includes  six- 
teen of  Shakespeare's  comedies  and  tragedies — "As 
You  Like  It,"  of  course,  'Twelfth  Night,"  "The 
Merry  Wives  of  Windsor,"  "Hamlet,"  "Romeo  and 
Juliet,"  "Othello,"  and  others;  and  several  of  the 
Greek  classics — notably  Euripides'  "Electra"  and 
"Iphigenia  in  Tauris."  Recently  they  have  added 
three  of  Percy  Mackaye's  plays  to  the  list,  "Jeanne 
d'Arc,"  "The  Canterbury  Pilgrims"  and  the  bird 
masque  "Sanctuary,"  and  they  have  played  success- 
fully "The  Yellow  Jacket,"  by  G.  C.  Hazelton  and 
Benrimo.  The  company  was  organized  with  the 


SIMPLICITY  IN  STAGING,  AS  ILLUSTRATED  IN  A  PRODUCTION  AT  THE 

POINT  LOMA  GREEK  THEATRE. 
[PHOTOGRAPH  COPYRIGHT  BY  KATHERINE  TINGLEY] 


THE  DRAMA  OF  THE  OPEN       129 

declared  intention  of  doing  away  with  the  evils  of 
the  star  system,  the  play  being  presented  for  the 
play's  sake,  with  adequate  interpretation  but  without 
over-emphasis  on  any  one  part.  The  plays  were 
chosen  with  the  intention  of  making  the  productions 
something  more  than  mere  entertainments.  Mr. 
Coburn  realized  the  tremendous  educational  and 
inspirational  force  latent  in  the  drama,  and  by  seek- 
ing intelligent  audiences  he  has  been  able  to  achieve 
the  ideal  of  the  higher  types  of  dramatic  art:  enter- 
tainment plus  spiritual  satisfaction.  Many  com- 
munities look  forward  to  the  visit  of  the  Coburn 
Players  as  one  of  the  artistic  events  of  the  year  and 
this  company  perhaps  has  done  more  than  any  other 
to  establish  the  outdoor  production  as  a  permanent 
part  of  dramatic  life  in  America. 

The  very  definite  relation  between  the  drama  of 
the  open  and  national  life  can  be  seen  in  the  great 
number  of  pageants  of  civic  communities  presented 
during  the  last  decade  and  in  the  communal  interest 
in  more  strictly  dramatic  productions  in  the  open. 
It  is  significant  that  Percy  Mackaye,  the  leading 
American  exponent  of  the  "civic  drama,"  turns  to 
the  open-air  theatre  for  an  adequate  setting  for  his 
communal  productions,  finding  there  alone  the  co- 
operation of  artists  and  people  that  makes  possible 


130         THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

the  finest  interpretation  of  drama.  Mr.  Mackaye 
more  than  any  other  writer  has  shown  the  impos- 
sibility of  a  truly  national  drama  developing  in  the 
indoor  theatre  as  at  present  constituted,  and  has 
pointed  out  that  the  theatre  must  escape  from  com- 
mercial speculative  limitations  before  it  can  develop 
as  a  vital  expression  of  the  life  of  the  people. 

The  civic  possibilities  of  the  drama  of  the  open 
are  unlimited.  Already  one  sees  that  while  the 
commercial  indoor  theatre  exists  to  take  men's  minds 
off  their  work  and  to  afford  rest  in  idle  amusement, 
the  open-air  theatre  not  only  affords  rest  but  stimu- 
lates men  to  new  effort  and  new  ideals.  The  world 
needs  the  indoor  theatre  in  a  more  wholesome  and 
more  vital  form  than  that  in  which  it  now  exists ;  and 
in  two  particulars  the  form  doubtless  will  gradually 
be  changed  after  the  pattern  of  the  open-air  theatre : 
the  building  will  become  more  democratic,  without 
boxes  and  with  good  seats  for  all;  and  the  drama 
presented  will  be  close  to  the  life  of  the  people.  But 
there  always  will  remain  this  difference:  that  the 
drama  of  the  indoor  stage  is  unavoidably  the  art  of 
the  few — although  designed,  perhaps,  to  stir  the 
many  emotionally — whereas  the  outdoor  drama  is 
distinctly  social,  communal  and  national.  In  the 
one  particular  of  community  participance,  the  indoor 
theatre  absolutely  fails  to  meet  the  outdoor  theatre 


THE  DRAMA  OF  THE  OPEN       131 

— and  the  inspirational  possibilities  of  the  latter  are 
infinite.  It  is  hardly  to  be  expected  that  any 
American  community  will  rise  to  the  sober  union  of 
drama  and  religion  which  is  seen  in  the  outdoor 
Passion  Play  of  the  villagers  of  Ober-Ammergau, 
where  indeed  the  desire  to  be  a  part  of  the  decennial 
productions  is  a  very  potent  incentive  to  clean  living 
and  clean  thinking;  but  one  may  see  therein  the 
possibilities  of  making  the  drama  a  significant  force 
in  the  life  of  every  citizen  who  retains  the  primal 
religious  and  dramatic  instincts. 

At  the  present  time,  at  least,  the  "regular"  theatre 
is  by  force  of  circumstances  outside  the  flowing  cur- 
rent of  human  life.  Perhaps  because  it  was  long 
ago  pushed  aside  by  a  jealous  church,  perhaps  be- 
cause men  were  simply  too  busy  with  governmental 
and  economic  affairs  to  remember  it,  very  certainly 
the  indoor  theatre  has  passed  outside  the  bounds  of 
community  responsibility.  It  long  has  been  and  is 
now  in  private  hands,  and  insofar  as  it  has  to  do  at 
all  with  true  dramatic  art,  it  exists  to  exploit  that 
art  for  private  gain.  It  is  distinctly  commercial. 
The  open-air  theatre,  however,  as  it  is  free  from  this 
speculative  limitation,  already  approaches  in  some 
measure  the  conditions  of  that  time  when  Greek 
drama  was  part  of  the  state  administration  of  com- 
munal affairs  and  an  expression  of  the  people's  reli- 


132         THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

gion,  and  of  that  other  time  when  the  church  de- 
veloped drama  as  part  of  its  ritual.  The  open-air 
theatre  is  returning  drama  to  the  people's  hands  as 
a  religious  force,  and  is  becoming  a  medium  of 
expression  of  their  spiritual  life. 


APPENDIX 


(This  appendix  contains  material  which  is  de- 
signed to  be  of  use  to  architects  and  others  who  may 
be  charged  with  the  actual  creation  of  an  open-air 
playhouse.  As  it  includes  repetitions,  in  more  de- 
tailed form,  of  much  that  has  been  described  briefly 
in  earlier  chapters,  the  general  reader  will  be  wise 
to  skip  it.  The  architect,  however,  will,  it  is  hoped, 
find  it  of  practical  assistance  in  determining  the 
details  of  his  design.) 


APPENDIX  I 

THE    PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION    OF    OPEN-AIR 
THEATRES 

In  the  actual  designing  of  an  open-air  theatre,  the 
first  determining  factor  is  the  site.  Unlike  most  of 
the  architect's  problems  this  one  is  partially  solved 
instead  of  complicated  if  the  site  is  hilly.  Whether 
the  structure  is  to  be  of  the  Greek  type,  or  of  the 
nature  type,  almost  invariably  it  may  be  built  at 
less  cost  if  there  is  a  hollow  or  a  hill  to  be  utilized. 
Very  often,  indeed,  the  existence  of  something 
approaching  a  natural  theatre  determines  the  placing 
of  the  architectural  structure. 

The  Greeks  were  obliged  to  utilize  hill-side  hol- 
lows for  their  auditoriums,  because  they  lacked  the 
knowledge  of  vaulting,  and  so  could  not  build  such 
huge  structures  on  the  flat.  The  Romans  overcame 
this  difficulty,  but  still  saved  unnecessary  expense  by 
taking  advantage  of  hills  when  they  existed  where 
the  theatres  were  to  be  built — and  the  modern 
architect  will  do  well  to  follow  their  lead.  In  case 
the  ground  is  perfectly  flat  the  designer  usually  will 

135 


136         THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

find  it  wise  to  abandon  the  classic  bowl  type  entirely, 
unless  saving  of  money  is  no  object.  There  are  in 
general  two  possible  arrangements  of  stage  and 
auditorium:  first,  a  low  stage  with  sharply  sloping 
auditorium  bowl;  and  second,  a  high  stage  with  flat 
or  saucer-shaped  auditorium.  The  latter  is  the 
natural  arrangement  for  flat  ground. 

If  the  site  is  flat,  or  if  there  is  a  choice  of  hollows, 
the  architect  should  keep  in  mind  this  principle, 
known  to  the  Greeks  and  voiced  by  Vitruvius :  Never 
face  a  theatre  to  the  south.  As  the  modern  day- 
time performance  usually  occurs  in  the  afternoon, 
the  theatre  should  not  face  the  west,  as  a  rule,  for 
the  glare  in  the  spectators'  eyes  interferes  with  the 
illusion;  and  a  theatre  facing  east  would  permit  a 
similar  glare  in  the  eyes  of  the  actors.  The  ideal 
facing  for  an  open-air  structure  in  the  United  States 
is  to  the  north,  or  a  little  to  the  east  of  north. 
That  arrangement  provides  the  maximum  of  com- 
fort to  spectator  and  actor.  In  cases  where  the 
ideal  facing  cannot  be  obtained,  much  of  the  discom- 
fort may  be  prevented  by  the  planting  of  quick- 
growing  tall  trees,  at  points  where  they  will  throw 
shadow  across  the  theatre  in  the  afternoon. 

Occasionally  the  site  of  a  theatre  is  determined  by 
some  unusual  bit  of  natural  beauty.  Thus  at  the 
Peterborough  Pageant  Theatre  the  audience  looks 


.137 

out  beyond  the  stage  to  Mt.  Monadnock  in  the  dis- 
tance, the  University  of  Wisconsin  theatre  faces 
Lake  Mendota,  and  in  the  Greek  Theatre  at  Point 
Loma  the  usual  rear  stage-wall  has  been  omitted  in 
order  that  a  chaste  little  temple  may  stand  out 
against  an  inspiring  sweep  of  ocean  and  sky.  The 
tendency  in  America  of  late  has  been  to  take  full 
advantage  of  every  attractive  vista  of  mountain, 
lake,  woods,  or  sea,  and  to  set  the  stage  entirely 
with  relation  to  some  some  such  individual  or  local 
bit  of  beauty.  If  the  theatre  is  to  serve  certain  uses, 
this  utilization  of  nature  is  wise;  but  the  custom 
offers  a  pitfall  to  the  architect  who  does  not  under- 
stand fully  the  several  kinds  of  outdoor  drama  and 
their  distinctive  demands  on  the  theatre.  The  es- 
sence of  the  matter  is  this:  in  a  theatre  designed  for 
pageants  or  for  spectacular  masques,  every  possible 
beauty  of  nature  should  be  utilized,  as  every  added 
loveliness  increases  the  sum  total  of  effectiveness. 
But  in  a  theatre  designed  chiefly  for  pure  drama,  a 
vista  through  the  trees  or  across  a  lake  is  likely  to 
prove  an  interruption  of  the  action,  and  the  more 
appealing  and  the  more  comprehensive  the  outlook 
is,  the  more  likely  the  spectator  is  to  let  his  attention 
wander  away  from  the  stage  and  what  is  happening 
there.  In  other  words,  if  the  theatre  is  designed 
for  extensive,  episodic  drama,  the  stage  may  profit- 


138         THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

ably  be  as  open  and  the  vistas  behind  it  as  appealing 
as  possible;  but  if  the  productions  are  to  be  chiefly 
plays,  in  which  cumulative  and  sustained  interest  in 
the  action  is  necessary,  the  stage  should  be  as  en- 
closed as  possible  and  especially  should  be  free  from 
compelling  bits  of  landscape  beauty  in  the  distant 
background.  To  have  the  theatre  right,  the  owner 
must  choose  the  sort  of  production,  and  the  archi- 
tect must  plan  to  fit  that  type  of  production. 

Very  often  it  has  been  said  that  whenever  possible 
a  lake  or  stream  should  be  utilized  as  a  part  of  the 
stage  of  an  open-air  theatre.  The  advice  is  well 
meant  but  it  should  be  well  considered  before  accep- 
tance. The  architect  should  remember  that  here 
again  those  who  give  it  are  interested  in  only  one 
direction  of  outdoor  production,  in  the  pageant  and 
masque.  A  stage  that  is  half  lake,  or  a  stage  to 
which  the  actors  can  canoe  or  sail  on  a  real  river, 
may  afford  the  opportunity  for  some  of  the  most 
beautiful  entrances  and  tableaus  that  can  be 
imagined ;  but  such  a  stage  will  probably  fail  entirely 
as  a  setting  for  true  dramatic  action.  The  very  fact 
that  it  is  so  open  precludes  concentration  of  interest. 

In  general  arrangement  the  open-air  theatres  of 
all  types  vary  extraordinarily:  some  are  short  and 
fat,  some  are  long  and  thin,  some  are  very  much 
up-and-down,  with  almost  vertical  stage  backgrounds 


REMAINS  OF  THE  ANCIENT  THEATRE  AT  FIESOLE,  ITALY.  THE 
PHOTOGRAPH  CLEARLY  ILLUSTRATES  MANY  OF  THE  STRUCTURAL 
FEATURES  OF  THE  ROMAN  THEATRE.  THE  ARRANGEMENT  OF  LOW 
STEPS  BELOW  THE  DIAZOMA  IS  TYPICAL  OF  THEATRES  OF  THE  LATE 

ROMAN    PERIOD. 


PLANNING  AND  CONSTRUCTION     139 

or  very  steep  terraces  of  seats,  and  some  are  almost 
flat.  But  in  all  one  primary  consideration  dictates 
the  arrangement:  the  sight  lines  must  be  clear  from 
every  portion  of  the  auditorium  to  every  portion  of 
the  stage. 

Of  the  two  typical  systems,  the  low  stage  with 
sharply  sloping  auditorium,  and  the  high  narrow 
stage  with  flat  or  saucer-shaped  auditorium,  the 
former  was  always  used  by  the  Greeks  in  their 
theatres.  The  steep  slope  was  necessary  because 
the  action  took  place  in  the  orchestra  circle.  The 
usual  slope  was  about  thirty  degrees.  When  the 
Romans  carried  the  action  to  the  stage,  they  pushed 
the  auditorium  forward,  cutting  the  old  orchestra 
circle,  or  dancing  place,  to  a  half-circle  and  filling 
that  with  seats.  The  auditorium  kept  its  steep 
slope,  but  the  stage  had  to  be  raised  in  order  that 
the  actors  might  be  clearly  seen  by  those  who  now 
sat  in  the  orchestra.  So  the  Roman  theatres  usually 
have  the  steep  auditorium  of  the  one  type,  and  the 
high  stage  of  the  other.  Perhaps  the  best  modern 
example  of  fidelity  to  the  Greek  system  of  levels  is 
the  theatre  at  Point  Loma,  California.  Here  the 
wide  orchestra  floor  is  used  for  part  of  the  action 
and  for  dancing,  while  the  floor  of  the  small  stage 
building  is  raised  only  a  few  steps.  At  the  modern 


140 


THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 


FIRST   TYPE 

LOW  .STAGE  -  STEEP  AUDITORIUM 


SECOND  TYPE 

HIGH  STAGE  •  FLAT  OR  SHALLOW  AUD. 


TYPICAL  EARLY  GREEK 


USUAL  GARDEN  THEATRE  TYPE 


rn-p, 


t«9«  o 

chestr 


TYPICAL  ROMAN 


SAUCER -SHAPED  VARIATION 


COMBINED  TVpes 


Ml  «t    M«MMt  Gr«.k  Theotr. 


HILLSIDE  STAGE  TYPE 

Boh*mi*t>  6r 


Diagram  showing  variations  of  the  two  typical  relations  between 
auditorium  and  stage. 


PLANNING  AND  CONSTRUCTION     141 

Greek  Theatre  at  Bradfield  the  stage  building  is 
similarly  very  low. 

Of  nature  theatres  of  the  flat  stage  type,  naturally 
most  of  the  mountain  theatres  are  examples;  for 
here  a  hill-side  forms  the  auditorium  and  a  terrace 
at  its  foot  forms  the  stage.  Most  of  the  garden 
theatres  follow  the  other  system;  but  the  little 
Brookside  Theatre  has  a  stage  on  the  flat  and  tiers 
of  rising  seats  with  a  slope  of  about  twenty  degrees. 
The  Greek  Theatre  at  Berkeley  combines  the  two 
types;  the  main  auditorium  begins  at  the  level  of  the 
stage  and  slopes  up  at  an  angle  of  thirty  degrees. 
Between  this  steeply  sloping  portion  and  the  stage, 
however,  there  is  a  section  with  a  fall  of  one  foot  in 
six,  and  at  the  bottom  of  this  a  flat  orchestra  circle, 
from  which  the  spectators  look  up  at  the  stage  six 
feet  above  them.  This  arrangement  is  an  interest- 
ing variation  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  types,  and 
has  been  copied  at  the  Pomona  Greek  Theatre  and 
elsewhere.  The  diagram  indicates  its  practicability 
for  very  large  structures. 

The  second  system  of  levels,  with  high  stage  and 
flat  auditorium,  is  the  one  commonly  used  in  garden 
theatres,  and  in  nature  theatres  constructed  where 
there  are  no  hills.  It  is  a  type  seldom  found  in  the 
purely  architectural  structures,  except  when  the 
stage  is  enclosed  and  curtained — in  which  case  the 


142         THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

structure  becomes  not  a  true  open-air  theatre  espe- 
cially suited  for  outdoor  drama,  but  merely  an 
indoor  theatre  with  the  auditorium  roof  lifted  off. 
Typical  examples  of  the  arrangement  as  applied  to 
garden  theatres  may  be  found  at  Villa  Gori,  where 
the  auditorium  floor  is  flat  and  the  stage  about  three 
and  one-half  feet  high,  and  at  Villa  Marlia,  where 
the  main  auditorium  floor  is  perfectly  level,  and  the 
stage  floor  four  feet  higher.  Very  often  the  stages 
of  the  garden  theatres  slope  up  slightly  from  front 
to  back — a  method  of  helping  out  the  difficult  prob- 
lem of  sight  lines,  which  the  architect  will  do  well  to 
remember.  At  "Ragdale  Ring,"  an  American 
garden  theatre  modelled  after  that  at  Villa  Gori,  the 
front  of  the  stage  is  only  two  and  one-half  feet 
above  the  level  auditorium  floor,  but  a  rise  of  one 
and  one-half  feet  more  between  the  front  and  rear 
of  the  stage  makes  the  total  height  sufficient.  The 
flat  auditorium  floor  is  found  in  nearly  all  garden 
theatres,  but  in  many  cases  it  is  surrounded  by  one 
or  two  terraces  on  higher  levels.  In  the  little  the- 
atre at  Mannheim,  Germany,  the  level  central  space 
is  contracted  to  the  minimum,  an,d  the  best  seats  are 
at  the  front  of  the  second  terrace,  which  is  prac- 
tically on  the  level  of  the  stage.  One  of  the  most 
interesting  stage  arrangements  is  the  Bohemian 
Grove  Theatre.  Here  the  main  stage  is  a  few  feet 


THE     GREEK    THEATRE 


PLAN   OF   THE   HEARST   GREEK  THEATRE. 
[JOHN   GALEN   HOWARD,   ARCHITECT] 


PLANNING  AND  CONSTRUCTION     143 

above  the  auditorium,  and  behind  it  a  trail  ascends 
a  very  steep  hillside;  and  along  that  trail  smaller 
platform  stages  have  been  erected  at  intervals,  one 
above  the  other,  so  that  action  may  take  place  on 
several  levels. 

Turning  now  from  the  matter  of  sight-lines  as 
they  affect  the  relative  levels  of  stage  and  audi- 
torium, it  is  worth  while  to  pause  a  moment  to  con- 
sider how  they  affect  the  general  shape  of  the  the- 
atre. One  would  think  that  the  architect's  common 
sense  would  lead  him  to  determine  the  side  lines  of 
the  auditorium  by  the  depth,  width  and  shape  of  the 
stage — but  continually  one  is  finding  both  indoor  and 
outdoor  theatres  where  the  spectators  in  the  outmost 
seats  can  see  but  half  the  stage.  There  are  three 
common  arrangements  to  insure  perfect  sight-lines 
laterally:  first,  a  semi-circular  auditorium  facing  a 
very  wide  and  shallow  stage;  second,  a  fan-shaped 
auditorium  facing  a  wedge-shaped  stage ;  and  third, 
a  rectangular  auditorium  facing  a  rectangular  stage 
of  the  same  width. 

The  Greek  and  Roman  theatres  all  had  audi- 
toriums of  the  semi-circular  type.  In  the  early 
Greek  structures  the  rows  of  seats  formed  more  than 
a  half-circle,  sometimes  having  the  ends  of  the  curve 
prolonged  on  tangents,  forming  a  "U,"  and  some- 
times making  a  perfect  two-thirds  of  a  circle.  But 


I"? 


I! 


OSS 


PLANNING  AND  CONSTRUCTION      145 

as  soon  as  the  action  left  the  orchestra  or  dancing 
circle,  to  be  confined  to  the  stage,  the  auditorium 
was  shortened  to  the  conventional  half-circle  of  the 
Roman  theatre.*  The  modern  architect  returns  to 
the  Greek  type  only  at  risk  of  adding  a  number  of 
unsatisfactory  seats  to  his  structure.  At  the  Cran- 
brook  Greek  Theatre  the  auditorium  is  limited  to 
the  exact  semi-circle.  At  the  Hearst  Greek  Theatre 
the  ends  of  the  semi-circle  are  extended  along  tan- 
gents a  few  feet,  but  not  enough  to  interfere  in  the 
least  with  the  sight-lines.  In  the  plan  for  a  theatre 
for  Garfield  Park,  Chicago,  the  auditorium  terraces 
form  almost  a  full  two-thirds  of  a  circle,  but  there  is 
a  certain  compensation  in  that  a  fore-stage  is  pushed 
out  between  the  proscenium  columns  into  the  orches- 
tra; but  still  the  sight-lines  never  could  be  satisfac- 
tory for  more  than  half  the  audience,  as  the  immense 
rear-stage  would  be  partly  or  wholly  hidden  from 
large  sections  at  each  end  of  the  auditorium.  It 
may  be  put  down  as  a  rule  that  if  one  adopts  the 
semi-circular  auditorium,  one  must  also  plan  for  a 
stage  almost  as  wide  as  the  diameter  of  the  outmost 
rows  of  seats.  The  wide  shallow  stage  is  a  neces- 
sary accompaniment  of  the  large  classic  auditorium 
form.  The  semi-circular  auditorium  is  successfully 
used  in  garden  theatres,  because  there  the  stage 

*  See  comparative  plans  in  Appendix  II. 


146 


THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 


almost   invariably   is   as   wide    as   the   auditorium. 

Of  the  second  and  third  types,  which  are  common 

in  nature  and  garden  theatres,  little  need  be  said. 


Plan  of  the  Butterick  Memorial  Theatre,  Sterling,  Massachusetts. 
An  example  of  the  fan-shaped  auditorium,  Frank  A.  Waugh, 
Architect. 

It  is  obvious  that  if  the  stage  is  wedge-shaped,  the 
auditorium  will  naturally  widen  out  along  lines  that 
take  their  direction  from  the  side-lines  of  the  stage ; 
and  if  the  stage  is  rectangular,  the  auditorium  width 
must  be  limited  almost  to  that  of  the  stage.  The 
rectangular  auditorium  permits  the  largest  possible 


PLANNING  AND  CONSTRUCTION     147 

stage-depth,  and  so  it  is  the  type  best  suited  to 
pageant  theatres.  The  fan  system  is  probably  the 
most  economical  of  ground  space,  and  it  allows  the 
greatest  possible  number  of  people  to  have  perfect 
views  of  the  entire  stage.  The  plan  for  an  outdoor 
theatre  at  Bryn  Mawr  College,  by  Olmsted  Brothers, 
and  that  for  a  park  at  Sterling,  Massachusetts,  by 
Frank  A.  Waugh,  shown  herewith,  are  interesting 
variations  of  the  fan  type. 

The  architect  should  note  that  in  most  successful 
outdoor  theatres  there  is  a  clear  space,  or  pit,  be- 
tween the  stage  and  the  first  rows  of  seats.  This 
space,  corresponding  in  some  measure  to  the  "mystic 
pit"  which  Wagner  insisted  should  separate  stage 
and  auditorium  in  the  opera-house,  has  a  very  defi- 
nite purpose :  that  of  preserving  the  sense  of  illusion, 
which  is  so  necessary  to  full  enjoyment  of  drama. 
In  theatres  where  the  stage  is  raised,  a  gap  is  formed 
naturally,  since  the  first  rows  of  seats  are  pushed 
back  to  allow  the  spectators  to  see  over  the  edge  of 
the  stage.  In  other  theatres  the  break  between  the 
two  parts  of  the  structure  is  more  obvious,  as  at  the 
nature  theatre  at  Hertenstein,  where  a  sloping  bank 
seems  to  divide  the  place  into  two  planes,  and  at 
the  Harz  Mountain  Theatre,  in  which  the  audience 
looks  down  at  the  action  seemingly  from  a  world 
above.  This  matter  of  the  desirability  of  keeping 


148         THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

the  audience  in  a  different  plane  or  atmosphere  from 
that  of  the  action  is  better  understood  in  Europe 
than  in  America,  the  architect  in  this  country  too 
often  crowding  the  auditorium  directly  against  the 
stage-front.  At  the  little  Brookside  Theatre,  how- 
ever, a  sloping  bank  of  turf,  similar  to  that  at  the 
Hertenstein  Theatre,  was  constructed  with  the  defi- 
nite intention  of  creating  a  break,  and  at  the  St. 
Louis  Pageant  Theatre,  and  elsewhere,  a  channel 
of  water  serves  the  same  purpose. 

The  matter  of  acoustics  is  far  less  a  puzzle  and 
far  less  a  gamble  in  open-air  theatres  than  within 
doors.  It  is  very  seldom  that  an  outdoor  theatre 
suffers  in  this  particular.  In  the  construction  of 
nature  theatres  and  the  more  open  types  of  garden 
theatre,  the  natural  acoustic  properties  of  the  site 
settle  the  matter.  If  they  are  bad,  the  architect 
will  do  well  to  go  elsewhere;  if  they  are  good,  the 
chances  are  that  they  will  not  be  changed  by  the 
slight  grading  and  planting  entailed  in  the  shaping 
of  stage  and  auditorium.  Certain  sites  seem  to  be 
perfectly  shaped  for  the  proper  distribution  of  sound 
waves.  At  the  Brookside  Garden  Theatre  every 
whisper  can  be  heard  distinctly,  due  probably  to  the 
conformation  of  the  hills  on  either  side,  which  also 
create  a  charming  sense  of  intimacy  and  seclusion. 
At  Ragdale  Ring,  on  the  other  hand,  the  unfortu- 


PLANNING  AND  CONSTRUCTION     149 

nate  placing  of  the  theatre  in  an  exposed  spot  leaves 
the  question  of  hearing  dependent  upon  changing 
winds  and  atmospheric  conditions.  The  only  other 
case  of  bad  acoustics  noted  in  American  open-air 
theatres  is  at  the  very  attractive  little  "Greek  The- 
atre" at  Bakersfield,  California.  Perhaps  because 
the  rear  of  the  stage  is  an  open  colonnade  instead 
of  a  solid  wall,  or  because  the  auditorium  is  so  low, 
the  sound  waves  diffuse  badly.  The  architect  origi- 
nally planned  formal  planting  of  trees  and  shrubs 
behind  the  colonnade  openings  and  about  the  rim  of 
the  auditorium,  and  this  may  correct  the  fault.  At 
present  the  theatre  cannot  be  satisfactorily  used 
without  heavy  hangings  between  the  columns.  On 
the  whole  it  is  to  be  doubted  whether  a  broken  stage 
background  of  this  sort  will  ever  prove  adequate 
acoustically.  It  is  undoubtedly  true  that  the  bowl- 
like  shape  of  the  classic  theatre  has  special  advan- 
tages, the  semicircular  rings  of  seats  and  the  high 
stage  wall  holding  in  the  sound  and  yet  giving  back 
no  echo.  Occasionally  nearly  ten  thousand  people 
crowd  into  the  Hearst  Greek  Theatre,  and  every 
one  of  them  can  hear  words  spoken  in  ordinary  con- 
versational tones  on  the  stage. 

Vitruvius  gives  elaborate  instructions  for  the  plac- 
ing of  bronze  sounding  vessels  in  open-air  theatres, 
to  accentuate  and  more  perfectly  to  distribute  the 


150         THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

sound-waves.  But  in  the  absence  of  any  definite 
proofs  of  the  efficacy  of  the  device,  and  in  the  ab- 
sence of  modern  experiments  with  it,  one  may  well 
hesitate  to  recommend  it. 

Turning  to  the  matter  of  stage  details,  it  may  be 
said  that  no  more  satisfying  background  has  ever 
been  invented  for  real  drama  than  the  Greek 
masonry  wall,  with  its  single  row  of  columns.  In 
both  Greek  and  Roman  theatres  it  was  customary  to 
have  this  long  wall  running  the  full  length  of  the 
stage  at  the  back,  and  extending  forward  at  each 
end  of  the  stage  platform.  There  is  a  very  spirited 
controversy  raging  among  archaeologists  as  to 
whether  the  action  in  a  Greek  theatre  took  place 
partly  on  a  raised  platform  stage  or  entirely  on  the 
level  of  the  orchestra  floor.  But  it  is  certain  that 
the  Romans,  entirely  giving  up  the  orchestra  circle 
as  a  place  for  action,  constructed  high  stages;  and 
since  the  modern  drama  has  no  counterpart  of  the 
Greek  dancing  chorus,  it  is  only  natural  that  the 
modern  architect  should  follow  the  Roman  system 
and  build  raised  stages.  The  height  of  the  stages  in 
Roman  theatres  varied  from  five  to  nine  feet.  At 
the  Hearst  Greek  Theatre  the  stage  is  six  feet  above 
the  orchestra  circle.  The  height  of  the  rear  stage 
wall  depends  more  upon  the  height  of  the  auditorium 


PLANNING  AND  CONSTRUCTION     151 

bowl  than  upon  the  size  of  the  stage.  Vitruvius  * 
set  it  down  as  law  that  the  top  of  the  wall  must  be 
on  the  level  of  the  highest  tier  of  seats,'  or  of  the 
top  of  the  surrounding  portico.  At  Orange,  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  the  stage  wall,  rising  one  hundred 
and  eighteen  feet  above  the  orchestra  floor,  is  much 
higher  than  the  auditorium;  at  Aspendus  the  top  of 
the  wall  is  flush  with  the  top  of  the  colonnade  which 
surrounds  the  auditorium. 

The  stage  buildings  of  the  truly  Greek  theatres 
are  so  far  in  decay  that  it  is  impossible  to  estimate 
reasonably  the  heights  of  the  stage  walls.  At  the 
Hearst  Greek  Theatre  the  wall  is  slightly  higher 
than  the  auditorium,  rising  forty-two  feet  above  the 
stage-floor.  In  decorating  the  wall  there  is  no  doubt 
that  the  modern  architect  will  do  better  to  follow 
the  Greek  system  of  a  single  row  of  columns  than 
to  adopt  the  over-elaborate  Roman  system  of  two 
or  three  rows  of  columns  and  pilasters,  one  above 
the  other.  In  the  Greek  system  there  is  a  sense 
of  dignity  and  a  quiet  impressive  beauty  which 
should  characterize  every  background  of  serious 
dramatic  action.  But  after  all,  there  is  nothing  ex- 
cept an  absurd  slavery  to  convention,  and  a  total 
lack  of  artistic  initiative,  to  prevent  American  archi- 

*  Vitruvius'  rules  for  the  construction  of  Greek  and  Roman 
theatres  will  be  found  in  Appendix  II. 


152        THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

tects  from  inventing  entirely  new  forms  of  design 
and  decoration  for  the  stage  wall. 

The  entrances  in  the  classic  theatres  were  usually 
five:  three  doorways  in  the  wall  at  the  back,  and 
one  at  each  end.  To  provide  less  than  this  number 
in  a  theatre  of  large  size  would  be  unwise.  There 
are  five  at  the  Hearst  Greek  Theatre,  and  even  the 
comparatively  small  stage  building  at  Bradfield  has 
as  many.  At  Cranbrook  there  is  an  entrance  at  each 
side,  and  three-fifths  of  the  rear-wall  is  left  open 
to  show  the  pool  and  rear  stage.  The  matter  of 
entrances  to  stages  on  which  the  stage  buildings  are 
mere  colonnades,  is  always  a  puzzle.  At  Point 
Loma  there  is  only  one  way  of  reaching  the  stage 
without  being  seen  by  the  audience:  by  coming  up 
through  the  precipitous  gulch  at  the  back  of  the 
temple.  Even  that  entrance  would  be  impossible 
if  the  theatre  were  not  situated  at  the  head  of  a 
canyon.  In  general  such  an  arrangement  is  a  seri- 
ous handicap  except  in  the  production  of  pageants 
and  festivals,  where  formal  entrances  and  exits  are 
unnecessary. 

The  sizes  of  the  stages  of  theatres  of  classic  type 
vary  greatly.  At  Orange  the  stage  is  over  two 
hundred  feet  wide  and  forty-two  feet  deep.  The 
stage  of  the  Greek  Theatre  at  Berkeley  is  one 
hundred  and  thirty-three  by  twenty-eight  feet.  That 


TWO  VIEWS  OF  THE  GREEK-ROMAN  THEATRE  AT  PRIENE,  SHOWING 
UNIQUE  STRUCTURAL  FEATURES. 


PLANNING  AND  CONSTRUCTION     153 

of  the  Greek  Theatre  planned  for  Griffith  Park, 
Los  Angeles,  is  to  be  two  hundred  feet  wide  and 
fifty  feet  deep,  with  stage  equipment  adequate  to 
accommodate  one  thousand  performers.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  stage  of  the  little  Greek  Theatre  at 
Bakersfield  is  only  forty  feet  wide  by  nineteen  deep, 
and  that  at  Cranbrook,  exclusive  of  the  rear-stage, 
only  forty-five  by  eighteen  feet.  In  general  it  may 
be  said  that  the  size  of  the  stage  in  a  structure  of  the 
classic  type  depends  almost  entirely  upon  the  size  of 
the  auditorium. 

Turning  from  the  architectural  theatres  to  the 
stage  details  of  the  garden  theatre,  it  is  worth  while 
to  note  the  radical  difference  in  the  shapes  of  the 
stages  in  the  two  types.  The  architectural  theatre 
stages  are  wide  and  shallow,  while  in  the  garden 
theatre  the  stage-depth  usually  is  greater  than  the 
width.  The  following  are  measurements  from 
typical  garden  theatres:  At  Villa  Gori  the  stage  is 
twenty-five  feet  wide  and  thirty  deep;  at  Collodi 
twenty-five  feet  wide  and  twenty-five  deep;  at 
Marlia  forty  feet  wide  and  forty  deep;  at  Villa 
Sergardi  (which  is  unusually  large)  fifty  feet  wide 
and  seventy  deep.  In  most  garden  theatres,  includ- 
ing all  of  these,  the  stage  width  decreases  at  the 
back.  In  general  it  is  well  not  to  make  a  stage 
less  than  twenty  feet  wide  at  the  front,  and  certainly 


154         THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

not  less  than  twenty  feet  deep.  A  stage  more  than 
thirty-five  or  forty  feet  wide,  on  the  other  hand,  or 
more  than  forty  deep,  will  prove  unwieldy  in  a 
garden  theatre. 

The  background  of  the  garden  theatre  stage 
nearly  always  is  formed  by  clipped  hedges.  The 
arrangement  and  proportions  of  these  hedges, 
usually  placed  on  each  side  of  the  stage  in  converg- 
ing rows,  afford  an  interesting  problem  for  the  de- 
signer. The  Italian  Villa  theatres  show  what  ex- 
quisite effects  can  be  gained  with  backgrounds  of 
this  sort.  Usually  the  hedges  are  set  against  masses 
of  less  formal  foliage,  though  at  the  Villa  Gori  the 
conventional  character  is  maintained  throughout, 
the  only  trees  showing  above  the  clipped  wings 
being  three  tall  cypresses,  one  at  the  exact  centre  of 
the  hedge  at  the  back  and  the  other  two  on  the  axis 
of  the  front  stage-wall.  At  one  time  treillage-work 
became  very  popular  in  garden  theatre  design,  the 
vari-formed  trellises  combining  beautifully  with  the 
formal  hedges.  The  garden  theatre  at  Mannheim, 
Germany,  is  one  of  the  finest  existing  examples  of 
this  type.  The  combinations  that  are  possible  with 
treillage-work  and  hedges  are  infinite,  and  the  archi- 
tect who  is  called  upon  to  design  a  garden  playhouse 
can  study  the  type  with  advantage.  Pergolas  have 
been  used  very  successfully  in  the  same  way, 


PLANNING  AND  CONSTRUCTION     155 

although  usually  with  more  informal  masses  of  trees 
and  shrubs.  The  finest  example  in  America  of  a 
stage  framed  by  a  pergola  is  at  the  Brookside  The- 
atre at  Mt.  Kisco. 

The  entrances  to  the  stage  are  more  easily  ar- 
ranged in  a  garden  thea-tre  than  in  any  other  type. 
The  series  of  hedges  form  natural  "wings,"  and  in 
the  more  informal  sorts  it  is  easy  to  leave  gaps 
between  the  groups  of  shrubs  and  trees. 

The  accompanying  plans  of  representative  garden 
theatres  show  the  usual  arrangement.  A  point  that 
is  sometimes  forgotten  by  the  architect  is  that  there 
must  be  ways  of  access  to  the  wings,  hidden  from 
the  audience.  The  arrangement  at  the  Villa  Gori, 
by  which  hidden  passages  run  between  high  hedges 
from  the  back  of  the  auditorium  to  the  wings,  is  very 
good;  and  a  similar  but  less  simple  arrangement  ex- 
ists at  the  Villa  Marlia,  where  there  is  also  very  wel- 
come working-space  at  either  side  of  the  stage.  At 
the  Villa  Collodi,  on  the  other  hand,  there  is  no  pas- 
sage to  the  wings  except  across  the  front  stage,  the 
actors  having  been  obliged  to  gather  before  the  au- 
dience took  its  place,  or  else  to  enter  in  full  sight  of 
the  spectators. 

Although  the  floor  of  the  architectural  theatre's 
stage  is  usually  of  stone  or  cement,  the  garden 
theatre  may  more  appropriately  have  a  floor  of  sod, 


VILLA  3ERBAGL40 


VILLA  COR1 


VILLA  SEfc  GARDI 


COMPARATIVE   PLANS  OF  ITALIAN   GARDEN   THEATRES 

VILLA  MARLIA:  Stage  floor  of  turf,  slightly  sloping;  wings  of 
cypress;  main  auditorium  fiat,  of  turf,  about  four  feet  below  stage 
level,  with  two  terraces  at  back;  yew  hedge  behind  auditorium, 
and  ilex  hedge  surrounding  all;  prompter's  shelter  at  front  of 
stage. 

VILLA  GORI:  Stage  floor  of  gravel,  slightly  sloping;  wings  of 
cypress,  twelve  feet  high;  auditorium  -$l/2  feet  below  stage  level, 
with  elaborate  "broderie"  pattern  of  turf  and  gravel;  twelve-foot 
ilex  hedge  behind  auditorium,  with  fifteen-foot  ilex  hedge  sur- 
rounding all;  entrance  through  ilex  tunneL 


PLANNING  AND  CONSTRUCTION     157 

closely  clipped.  Earth  or  gravel  tamped  hard  has 
proved  satisfactory  in  some  cases,  but  the  green 
turf  usually  fits  in  more  harmoniously  with  the 
general  composition. 

Of  the  stage  detail  of  the  nature  theatre  very 
little  need  be  said.  Indeed,  the  stage  arrangements 
are  so  various,  and  depend  so  largely  upon  the  ex- 
isting background  that  nothing  approaching  rules 
can  be  formulated.  There  is  one  cardinal  principle, 
however,  which  the  architect  must  keep  in  mind: 
never  allow  a  building  to  intrude  into  the  back- 
ground. The  first  virtue  of  the  nature  theatre  is 
the  naturalness,  or  even  wildness  of  its  setting,  and 
a  building,  even  if  only  glimpsed  through  distant 
trees,  strikes  a  discordant  note. 

In  connection  with  stage  construction  the  matter 
of  dressing  rooms  must  be  considered.  In  the 
purely  architectural  theatres  the  problem  is  easily 
solved,  as  the  architect  may  build  whatever  he 
wishes  behind  the  stage  wall,  without  marring  the 
appearance  of  the  theatre  from  the  audience's  side. 

VILLA  SERRAGLIO:  Stage  floor  of  gravel;  wings  of  yew;  ten- 
foot  ye<w  hedge  surrounding  stage  and  wings;  auditorium  four 
feet  below  stage  level,  of  gravel,  with  eight  stone  seats;  prompt' 
er's  box  at  front  of  stage. 

VILLA  SERGARDI:  Stage  floor  of  turf  within  gravel  walk: 
slightly  sloping;  wings  of  ilex,  eighteen  feet  high,  joining  at  top 
with  surrounding  twenty-foot  hedge,  forming  tunnels  for  en- 
trances; hedges  decorated  with  topiary  work;  auditorium  formed 
by  court  four  feet  below  stage  level. 


158        THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

Some  of  the  old  Greek  and  Roman  theatres  had 
elaborate  systems  of  dressing-rooms,  the  space  under 
the  stage  being  utilized  for  this  purpose  in  some 
examples.  In  the  garden  theatre  the  problem  is 
also  relatively  simple,  as  the  entire  stage  is  enclosed, 
the  space  outside  the  wings  being  available  for  tents 
or  more  permanent  structures.  But  in  nature  the- 
atres, with  the  maximum  openness  in  all  directions, 
the  question  often  is  very  puzzling.  Sometimes  a 
tent  may  be  hidden  in  a  clump  of  trees,  and  some- 
times a  creek-bed  offers  shelter.  At  the  large  the- 
atre in  the  Klampenborg  Woods,  near  Copenhagen, 
the  dressing-rooms  are  under  the  stage;  but  here 
the  wooden  stage-front,  and  the  necessary  windows, 
form  a  false  note  in  a  structure  which  should  have 
kept  its  natural  character  as  far  as  possible.  Long 
waits  while  actors  go  to  change  their  costumes  are 
disastrous  in  any  sort  of  production,  and  it  is  proper 
to  build  dressing-rooms  close  to  the  stage  even  at 
some  sacrifice  in  other  directions;  but  the  sacrifice 
should  not  entail  the  bringing  of  false  notes  into 
the  composition. 

Of  other  stage  accessories,  the  prompter's  box 
may  well  claim  serious  consideration.  In  the  gar- 
den theatres  of  Italy  this  feature  was  common. 
Usually  it  was  a  rounded  shelter,  open  on  the  stage- 
side,  built  of  hedge  directly  against  the  front  stage- 


PLANNING  AND  CONSTRUCTION     159 

wall,  and  just  large  enough  for  a  man  to  sit  in  com- 
fortably. Such  a  shelter  may  be  constructed  very 
unobtrusively,  from  the  auditorium  often  appearing 
to  be  merely  an  enlargement  of  the  hedge  that  masks 
the  stage  retaining-wall.  In  the  Greek  theatres  any 
such  construction  is  impossible,  and  in  the  nature 
theatre  it  usually  is  necessary  to  place  the  shelter 
in  a  clump  of  trees  or  shrubs  at  one  side  of  the 
stage.  But  wherever  practicable  it  is  a  valuable 
help  to  the  director  of  productions. 

As  to  a  hidden  position  for  the  orchestra,  no  satis- 
factory arrangement  has  yet  been  invented  for 
Greek  theatres.  There  is  something  ridiculous  in 
the  sight  of  musicians  fiddling  away  for  dear  life 
within  a  few  feet  of  the  centre  of  a  stage  where 
pathetic  action  is  taking  place.  Moreover  at  night 
performances  the  glare  from  the  musicians'  lights 
is  very  often  a  weighty  factor  in  destroying  illusion. 
It  might  well  be  that  a  recess  could  be  hollowed 
under  the  front  of  the  stage-floor,  wherein  the  or- 
chestra could  be  hidden  by  a  grating  that  still  would 
not  destroy  the  effect  of  the  music.  In  the  garden 
theatre  design,  an  enclosed  recess  should  be  left  for 
the  musicians  at  one  side  of  the  stage,  or,  failing 
that,  behind  the  hedge  that  serves  as  a  "back-drop." 
Here,  of  course,  since  the  construction  is  all  of 
hedges  and  trees,  the  sound  will  carry  from  any 


160         THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

point  near  the  stage  to  the  auditorium.  Similarly 
the  orchestra  in  a  nature  theatre  can  be  hidden  by 
any  convenient  clump  of  trees,  and  often  the  placing 
of  the  musicians  at  a  little  distance  from  the  stage 
and  audience  will  add  to,  rather  than  detract  from, 
the  effect.  In  a  theatre  with  a  comparatively  flat 
auditorium  floor,  a  pit  can  be  sunk  for  the  orchestra 
immediately  in  front  of  the  stage  platform.  This 
arrangement  has  been  adopted  at  the  Bohemian 
Grove  Theatre,  where  a  slightly  sloping  bank 
covered  with  ferns  hides  even  the  fact  of  the  pit's 
existence  from  the  audience.  A  similar  recess  is 
provided  for  the  orchestra  in  the  nature  theatre  at 
Vassar  College. 

In  the  matter  of  detail  of  auditorium  construction 
the  architect  has  to  consider  little  beyond  the  shape 
of  the  seats.  If  these  are  to  be  of  wood,  there 
are  numerous  types  of  benches  to  choose  from.  If 
the  construction  is  to  be  of  concrete,  probably  a 
straight  step  arrangement  will  be  best.  But  if  the 
seats  are  to  be  of  permanent  stone,  the  architect  will 
do  well  to  go  back  to  the  Greek  and  Roman  theatres 
for  models.  Some  of  the  arrangements  are  unusu- 
ally graceful  as  well  as  practical.  The  usual  rise 
of  each  terrace  of  seats  was  sixteen  to  eighteen 
inches,  while  the  "tread"  was  twenty-four  to  thirty 
inches,  this  combination  giving  a  satisfactory  slope 


CHAIRS  OF  HONOR  IN  THE  THEATRE  OF  DIONYSUS  AT  ATHENS. 


PLANNING  AND  CONSTRUCTION     161 

to  the  whole  auditorium.  At  the  Hearst  Greek 
Theatre  the  rise  is  between  seventeen  and  eighteen 
inches,  and  the  tread  thirty  inches,  except  below  the 
diazoma,  where  the  risers  are  only  six  inches  high 
and  the  tread  thirty-six  deep.  As  the  latter  portion 
of  the  auditorium  is  below  the  level  of  the  stage  the 
six-inch  step  is  adequate — although  of  course,  such 
a  small  rise  makes  necessary  the  use  of  chairs.  In 
the  ancient  Greek  theatres  there  was  usually  a  row 
of  "chairs  of  honor,"  elaborately  carved  from 
marble,  at  the  outer  edge  of  the  orchestra  circle. 
The  photograph  of  the  seats  of  the  priests  in  the 
theatre  at  Athens,  shows  some  of  the  finest  of  these 
chairs.  The  Hearst  Greek  Theatre  is  the  only 
modern  structure  in  which  this  feature  has  been 
copied,  eight  marble  seats  of  honor  having  been 
placed  already  at  the  front  edge  of  the  diazoma. 

The  auditorium  of  the  garden  theatre  is  usually 
a  pit  with  turf  or  gravel  floor,  on  which  chairs  are 
placed  at  times  of  performances.  An  exception 
among  the  Italian  theatres  is  at  Villa  Serraglio, 
where  there  are  eight  stone  benches.  At  the  Villa 
Gori  the  floor  of  the  auditorium  is  an  elaborate 
"broderie"  design  of  turf  and  narrow  gravel  walks. 

Ordinarily  each  seat  is  considered  to  occupy  a 
width  of  twenty-six  to  thirty  inches  and  a  depth  of 
thirty-three  to  thirty-six  inches — although  an  even 


1 62         THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

larger  allotment  of  space  is  wise  in  the  out-of-doors. 
At  the  smaller  figures,  each  seat  will  occupy  six 
square  feet.  Starting  with  these  figures,  the  de- 
signer can  by  an  easy  mathematical  calculation  de- 
termine the  seating-capacity  of  any  given  plot  of 
ground. 

The  problem  of  lighting  an  open-air  theatre  for 
night  performances  is  one  of  the  most  perplexing  of 
all  that  the  architect  must  meet.  In  the  large 
structures  of  the  architectural  type,  especially,  it  is 
difficult  to  work  out  a  stage-lighting  system  that  is 
adequate  without  creating  a  disillusioning  glare  in 
the  eyes  of  a  part  of  the  audience.  At  the  Greek 
Theatre  at  Berkeley  the  system  has  proved  inade- 
quate time  and  again.  Here  the  only  set  feature 
is  a  row  of  masked  footlights  in  a  shallow  depres- 
sion along  the  stage-front.  This  is  sometimes  sup- 
plemented by  a  string  of  lights,  masked  on  the  audi- 
torium side,  suspended  above  the  stage,  and  by 
"spot-lights"  thrown  from  the  centre  of  the 
diazoma.  But  always  the  suspended  lamps  are 
noticeable  from  certain  seats,  and  invariably  the 
spectators  who  sit  close  to  the  spot-light  machines 
are  disturbed  by  the  sputtering  of  the  lamps,  and  by 
the  glare  of  the  lights  when  the  operators  are  shift- 
ing their  colored  screens.  Moreover  the  very 
movements  of  the  operators  are  an  interruption  and 


PLANNING  AND  CONSTRUCTION     163 

an  annoyance.  The  only  solution  that  will  be  per- 
manently satisfactory  in  such  a  theatre  is  the  build- 
ing of  temporary  hoods  or  shelters  which  will 
entirely  cover  machines  and  operators,  with  holes 
only  on  the  stage  side  for  the  streams  of  light.  The 
designer  of  a  new  theatre  of  the  Greek  or  archi- 
tectural type  might  well  consider  the  advisability 
of  setting  in  permanent  boxes  for  the  light-machines, 
under  the  centre  of  the  auditorium  at  the  height 
of  the  stage. 

In  the  more  flexible  nature  and  garden  theatres 
the  lighting  problem  becomes  much  simpler.  A  row 
of  footlights  can  always  be  masked  by  a  log  in  the 
one  case,  or  by  a  miniature  hedge  in  the  other. 
Side  lights  can  be  thrown,  moreover,  from  almost 
any  point  in  the  wings,  the  hedges  or  clumps  of 
shrubs  serving  to  hide  the  actual  lamps  from  the 
audience.  At  the  Bohemian  Grove  Theatre  the  pro- 
fusion of  trees  and  shrubs  at  the  sides  of  the  narrow 
stage  has  made  possible  the  achievement  of  remark- 
ably rich  and  subtle  light  effects.  Similarly  the 
deep  stage  of  the  garden  theatre  at  Ragdale  offered 
opportunities  which  the  owners  were  quick  to  grasp. 
In  this  theatre  use  is  made  of  proscenium  columns, 
not  alone  to  frame  the  stage  decoratively,  but  to 
cover  the  source  of  certain  lights.  The  utility  of 
such  columns  in  distributing  the  lights,  is  a  large 


1 64         THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

factor  in  determining  the  adoption  of  this  feature 
in  nature  and  garden  theatres;  and  in  those  theatres 
in  which  the  architect  does  not  wish  to  disturb  the 
natural  look  by  the  permanent  introduction  of  any 
such  formal  feature,  sockets  can  be  left  at  each  side 
of  the  stage-front,  into  which  the  columns  with  the 
lighting  equipment  can  be  fitted  just  at  the  times  of 
night  performances.  The  design  by  Hermann 
Rosse  for  the  stage  of  an  open-air  theatre  shows 
an  interesting  arrangement  of  pylons  to  mask  light- 
sources.  , 

In  general,  the  architect's  duty  to  the  producer 
is  to  make  provision  for  ample  lights  both  from  the 
front  and  from  the  sides ;  and  his  duty  to  the  audi- 
ence is  to  see  that  these  lights  are  so  masked  that 
not  a  single  lamp  can  be  seen  from  the  auditorium 
— for  nothing  else  so  quickly  destroys  illusion  as  a 
glare. 

The  drainage  systems  of  open-air  theatres  are 
very  simple  affairs.  If  the  stage  slopes,  as  it  does 
slightly  in  so  many  nature  and  garden  theatres,  a 
small  gutter  at  the  front  may  prevent  damage  by 
carrying  away  excess  water.  Always  when  the 
auditorium  pit  is  sunk  below  the  level  of  the  sur- 
rounding ground,  it  is  necessary  to  provide  a  drain- 
age outlet  from  the  lowest  point.  The  Hearst 
Greek  Theatre  has  a  gutter  on  the  level  of  the 


DESIGN   FOR  THE    STAGE   OF   A   PAGEANT  THEATRE,   BY  HERMANN 
ROSSE.      HERE  THE  COLUMNS  OFFER  SHELTER  FOR  LIGHT-SOURCES. 


PLANNING  AND  CONSTRUCTION     165 

diazoma,  another  around  the  little  orchestra  circle, 
at  the  lowest  level,  and  another  along  the  full  length 
of  the  stage-front.  All  of  these  are  covered  with 
continuous  iron  grating.  In  the  Greek  and  Roman 
theatres  the  drainage  system  was  exactly  of  this  sort. 

The  cost  of  an  open-air  theatre  depends  upon 
the  type  chosen,  the  size,  and  the  topographical  con- 
ditions. Often  a  nature  theatre  may  be  shaped  in  a 
hollow  of  the  hills  for  two  or  three  thousand  dollars, 
while  a  garden  theatre  may  easily  be  constructed  for 
even  less.  In  both  types  it  is  the  grading  that  is 
most  expensive,  although  much  may  be  spent  in 
planting  and  in  incidental  architectural  features. 
In  the  architectural  theatres,  the  cost  may  run  up  to 
the  hundreds  of  thousands  of  dollars  if  the  struc- 
ture is  built  of  stone,  being  less  if  the  material  is 
concrete,  and  still  less  if  wood  is  chosen.  In  general 
it  may  be  said  that  the  community  with  two  or  three 
thousand  dollars  to  spend  can  have  an  open-air  the- 
atre that  will  serve  for  the  production  of  pageants 
and  masques;  and  usually  if  the  need  for  a  more 
elaborate  structure  is  proved,  the  further  sum  neces- 
sary will  be  forthcoming. 

Occasionally  the  prospective  owner  comes  to  the 
architect  with  the  unqualified  demand  for  an  out- 
door theatre.  The  architect  is  left  to  choose  or  at 
least  suggest  the  style  or  type.  So  it  may  not  be 


1 66         THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

amiss  to  outline  the  distinctive  advantages  and  limi- 
tations of  each  of  the  three  types.  It  would  be  as 
ridiculous  for  a  pageant  association  to  build  a 
structure  of  the  rigid  Greek  type,  as  for  a  university 
to  build  a  very  open  nature  theatre  or  tiny  garden 
theatre.  The  designer  must  weigh  carefully  the 
kind  of  drama  to  be  presented  and  the  probable  size 
of  the  audiences;  and  of  course  he  must  keep  in 
mind  whether  the  gatherings  will  be  public  or 
private. 

A  theatre  of  the  Greek  or  purely  architectural 
type  is  the  only  one  in  which  very  large  crowds  can 
be  seated  and  all  hear  perfectly.  The  only  large 
modern  Greek  theatre,  that  at  Berkeley,  ordinarily 
seats  sixty-four  hundred  people,  and  there  is  no 
point  in  the  auditorium  at  which  words  spoken  in 
ordinary  tones  from  the  stage  cannot  be  heard  dis- 
tinctly. The  acoustics  of  the  ancient  Greek  and 
Roman  theatres  are  described  as  perfect,  although 
the  seating  capacities  often  were  immense;  for  ex- 
ample, the  theatre  at  Athens  accommodated  about 
17,000  people,  Megalopolis  20,000,  Epidaurus 
18,000,  and  the  Theatre  of  Marcellus  at  Rome 
20,500.  The  partially  enclosed  form,  the  bowl- 
like  shape,  doubtless  prevents  the  sound-waves  from 
diffusing  as  they  do  in  the  more  open  nature  theatre. 
The  sense  of  enclosure,  moreover,  affords  to  the 


PLANNING  AND  CONSTRUCTION     167 

audience  that  feeling  of  being  close  to  the  action  on 
the  stage,  or  even  of  being  a  part  of  the  action, 
which  is  such  a  large  factor  in  preserving  the  illusion 
of  drama  in  the  indoor  theatre.  The  Greek  type 
of  open-air  playhouse  is  better-fitted  than  any  other 
for  the  production  of  any  of  the  ordinary  forms  of 
drama,  and  its  atmosphere  of  protection  from  out- 
side interruptions  makes  possible  the  enjoyment  of 
concerts  and  all  other  sorts  of  activity  that  demand 
concentration  of  attention.  Its  one  limitation  is  in 
the  direction  of  pageant-producing.  Its  rigid  back- 
ground and  inflexible  stage  do  not  lend  themselves 
well  as  a  setting  for  pageants,  masques  and  spec- 
tacles. The  Greek  theatre  is  the  theatre  par 
excellence  for  universities,  where  most  of  the  dra- 
matic productions  are  likely  to  be  plays  rather  than 
pageants,  and  where  concerts,  meetings,  and  lectures 
are  to  be  included  in  the  theatre's  activities ;  and  of 
course  it  is  the  type  for  any  community  that  desires 
to  utilize  its  structure  thus  widely.  It  is  interesting 
to  note  that  although  the  series  of  plays  at  the 
Hearst  Greek  Theatre  has  been  remarkable  in  many 
ways,  the  purely  dramatic  activities  have  totalled 
less  than  one-fourth  of  all  the  exercises  there. 

The  distinctive  advantages  of  the  nature  theatre 
type  lie  in  its  openness  and  flexibility.  It  affords  a 
perfect  setting  for  pageants  and  masques  and  for 


1 68         THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

aesthetic  dancing,  but  not  for  plays  or  meetings  or 
lectures.  At  the  Peterborough  Pageant  Theatre 
concerts  have  been  given  successfully,  but  as  a  rule 
music  demands  a  more  intimate  atmosphere.  If  the 
architect  is  building  for  a  pageant-association,  he 
should  by  all  means  turn  to  the  nature  type;  and  in 
those  cities  where  theatres  are  to  be  constructed  in 
public  parks  chiefly  for  the  use  of  the  playground 
departments,  for  folk  dances,  flower  festivals,  and 
similar  activities,  this  is  the  best  type. 

The  characteristic  virtues  of  the  garden  theatre 
are  derived  chiefly  from  its  smallness.  It  has  the 
same  sense  of  enclosure  and  protection  as  the  Greek 
theatre,  but  it  has  also  the  atmosphere  of  intimacy 
that  results  from  the  very  limited  size  of  the  stage 
and  the  closeness  of  the  audience  to  the  stage.  It 
is  the  perfect  type  for  poetic  plays  and  dramatic 
readings,  and  for  most  amateur  performances.  So, 
of  course,  it  is  the  perfect  type  for  private  estates, 
and  for  amateur  societies. 


APPENDIX  II 

VITRUVIUS  ON  THE   CONSTRUCTION  OF  GREEK  AND 
ROMAN  THEATRES 

(Vitruvius  was  a  Latin  writer,  probably  of  the 
Augustan  Age.  Although  he  wrote  without  literary 
distinction,  his  work,  "Ten  Books  on  Architecture," 
is  very  important  as  a  contemporary  source  of  knowl- 
edge about  the  architecture  and  building  of  the 
Romans,  and  to  some  extent  of  the  Greeks.  The 
extracts  here  printed  form  four  chapters  of  this 
work,  and  are  reprinted,  by  permission,  from  the 
translation  of  Morris  Hicky  Morgan,  published  by 
the  Harvard  University  Press.) 

THE    THEATRE:    ITS    SITE,    FOUNDATIONS,    AND 
ACOUSTICS 

After  the  forum  has  been  arranged,  next, 
for  the  purpose  of  seeing  plays  or  festivals  of  the 
immortal  gods,  a  site  as  healthy  as  possible  should 
be  selected  for  the  theatre,  in  accordance  with  what 
has  been  written  in  the  first  book,  on  the  principles 

169 


170         THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

of  healthfulness  in  the  sites  of  cities.  For  when 
plays  are  given,  the  spectators,  with  their  wives  and 
children,  sit  through  them  spellbound,  and  their 
bodies,  motionless  from  enjoyment,  have  the  pores 
open,  into  which  blowing  winds  find  their  way.  If 
these  winds  come  from  marshy  districts  or  from 
other  unwholesome  quarters,  they  will  introduce 
noxious  exhalations  into  the  system.  Hence,  such 
faults  will  be  avoided  if  the  site  of  the  theatre  is 
somewhat  carefully  selected. 

We  must  also  beware  that  it  has  not  a  southern 
exposure.  When  the  sun  shines  full  upon  the 
rounded  part  of  it,  the  air,  being  shut  up  in  the 
curved  enclosure  and  unable  to  circulate,  stays  there 
and  becomes  heated;  and  getting  glowing  hot  it 
burns  up,  dries  out,  and  impairs  the  fluids  of  the 
human  body.  For  these  reasons,  sites  which  are 
unwholesome  in  such  respects  are  to  be  avoided,  and 
healthy  sites  selected. 

The  foundation  walls  will  be  an  easier  matter  if 
they  are  on  a  hillside;  but  if  they  have  to  be  laid  on 
a  plain  or  in  a  marshy  place,  solidity  must  be  as- 
sured and  substructures  built  in  accordance  with 
what  has  been  written  in  the  third  book,  on  the  foun- 
dations of  temples.  Above  the  foundation  walls, 
the  ascending  rows  of  seats,  from  the  substructures 
up,  should  be  built  of  stone  and  marble  materials. 


The  curved  cross-aisles  should  be  constructed  in 
proportionate  relation,  it  is  thought,  to  the  height 
of  the  theatre,  but  not  higher  than  the  footway  of 
the  passage  is  broad.  If  they  are  loftier,  they  will 
throw  back  the  voice  and  drive  it  away  from  the 
upper  portion,  thus  preventing  the  case-endings  of 
words  from  reaching  with  distinct  meaning  the  ears 
of  those  who  are  in  the  uppermost  seats  above  the 
cross-aisles.  In  short,  it  should  be  so  contrived  that 
a  line  drawn  from  the  lowest  to  the  highest  seat  will 
touch  the  top  edges  and  angles  of  all  the  seats.  Thus 
the  voice  will  meet  with  no  obstruction. 

The  different  entrances  ought  to  be  numerous  and 
spacious,  the  upper  not  connected  with  the  lower,  but 
built  in  a  continuous  straight  line  from  all  parts  of 
the  house,  without  turnings,  so  that  the  people  may 
not  be  crowded  together  when  let  out  from  shows, 
but  may  have  separate  exits  from  all  parts  without 
obstructions. 

Particular  pains  must  also  be  taken  that  the  site 
be  not  a  "deaf"  one,  but  one  through  which  the 
voice  can  range  with  the  greatest  clearness.  This 
can  be  brought  about  if  a  site  is  selected  where  there 
is  no  obstruction  due  to  echo. 

Voice  is  a  flowing  breath  of  air,  perceptible  to 
the  hearing  by  contact.  It  moves  in  an  endless 
number  of  circular  rounds,  like  the  innumerably  in- 


172         THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

creasing  circular  waves  which  appear  when  a  stone 
is  thrown  into  smooth  water,  and  which  keep  on 
spreading  indefinitely  from  the  centre  unless  inter- 
rupted by  narrow  limits,  or  by  some  obstruction 
which  prevents  such  waves  from  reaching  their  end 
in  due  formation.  When  they  are  interrupted  by 
obstructions,  the  first  waves,  flowing  back,  break  up 
the  formation  of  those  which  follow. 

In  the  same  manner  the  voice  executes  its  move- 
ments in  concentric  circles;  but  while  in  the  case  of 
water  the  circles  move  horizontally  on  a  plane  sur- 
face, the  voice  not  only  proceeds  horizontally,  but 
also  ascends  vertically  by  regular  stages.  There- 
fore, as  in  the  case  of  the  waves  formed  in  the 
water,  so  it  is  in  the  case  of  the  voice:  the  first 
wave,  when  there  is  no  obstruction  to  interrupt  it, 
does  not  break  up  the  second  or  the  following  waves, 
but  they  all  reach  the  ears  of  the  lowest  and  highest 
spectators  without  an  echo. 

Hence  the  ancient  architects,  following  in  the 
footsteps  of  nature,  perfected  the  ascending  rows  of 
seats  in  theatres  from  their  investigations  of  the 
ascending  voice,  and,  by  means  of  the  canonical 
theory  of  the  mathematicians  and  that  of  the  musi- 
cians, endeavored  to  make  every  voice  uttered  on  the 
stage  come  with  greater  clearness  and  sweetness  to 
the  ears  of  the  audience.  For  just  as  musical  instru- 


EXTRACTS  FROM  VITRUVIUS       1 73 

ments  are  brought  to  perfection  of  clearness  in  the 
sound  of  their  strings  by  means  of  bronze  plates  or 
horn  fa*"*,  so  the  ancients  devised  methods  of  in- 
creasing the  power  of  the  voice  in  theatres  through 
the  application  of  harmonics. 

[At  this  point  there  are  abstruse  chapters  on 
"Harmonics"  and  "Sounding  Vessels  in  the  The- 
atre."] 

PLAN  OF  THE  THEATRE 

The  plan  of  the  theatre  itself  is  to  be  constructed 
as  follows.  Having  fixed  upon  the  principal  cen- 
tre, draw  a  line  of  circumference  equivalent  to  what 
is  to  be  the  perimeter  at  the  bottom,  and  in  it  inscribe 
four  equilateral  triangles,  at  equal  distances  apart 
and  touching  the  boundary  line  of  the  circle,  as  the 
astrologers  do  in  a  figure  of  the  twelve  signs  of  the 
zodiac,  when  they  are  making  computations  from 
the  musical  harmony  of  the  stars.  Taking  that  one 
of  these  triangles  whose  side  is  nearest  to  the  scaena, 
let  the  front  of  the  scaena  be  determined  by  the  line 
where  that  side  cuts  off  a  segment  of  the  circle 
(A-B),  and  draw,  through  the  centre,  a  parallel 
line  (C-D)  set  off  from  that  position,  to  separate 
the  platform  of  the  stage  from  the  space  of  the 
orchestra. 


PLAN 


SECTION 


Plan  and  section  of  the  Roman  Theatre  according  to  Vitruvius. 
(By  courtesy  of  the  Harvard  University  Press.) 


EXTRACTS  FROM  VITRUVIUS       175 

The  platform  has  to  be  made  deeper  than  that 
of  the  Greeks,  because  all  our  artists  perform  on  the 
stage,  while  the  orchestra  contains  the  places  re- 
served for  the  seats  of  senators.  The  height  of 
this  platform  must  be  not  more  than  five  feet,  in 
order  that  those  who  sit  in  the  orchestra  may  be 
able  to  see  the  performances  of  all  the  actors.  The 
sections  (cunei)  for  spectators  in  the  theatre  should 
be  so  divided,  that  the  angles  of  the  triangles  which 
run  about  the  circumference  of  the  circle  may  give 
the  direction  for  the  flights  of  steps  between  the 
sections,  as  far  as  up  to  the  first  curved  cross-aisle. 
Above  this,  the  upper  sections  are  to  be  laid  out, 
midway  between  (the  lower  sections),  with  alternat- 
ing passage-ways. 

The  angles  at  the  bottom,  which  give  the  direc- 
tions for  the  flights  of  steps,  will  be  seven  in  number 
(C,  E,  F,  G,  H,  I,  D) ;  the  other  five  angles  will 
determine  the  arrangement  of  the  scene :  thus,  the 
angle  in  the  middle  ought  to  have  the  "royal  door" 
(K)  opposite  to  it;  the  angles  to  the  right  and  left 
(L,M)  will  designate  the  position  of  the  doors  for 
guest  chambers;  and  the  two  outermost  angles 
( A,B)  will  point  to  the  passages  in  the  wings.  The 
steps  for  the  spectators'  places,  where  the  seats  are 
arranged,  should  be  not  less  than  a  foot  and  a  palm 
in  height,  nor  more  than  a  foot  and  six  fingers;  their 


176         THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

depth  should  be  fixed  at  not  more  than  two  and  a  half 
feet,  nor  less  than  two  feet. 

The  roof  of  the  colonnade  to  be  built  at  the  top 
of  the  rows  of  seats,  should  be  level  with  the  top 
of  the  "scaena,"  for  the  reason  that  the  voice  will 
then  rise  with  equal  power  until  it  reaches  the 
highest  rows  of  seats  and  the  roof.  If  the  roof  is 
not  so  high,  in  proportion  as  it  is  lower,  it  will  check 
the  voice  at  the  point  which  the  sound  first  reaches. 

Take  one-sixth  of  the  diameter  of  the  orchestra 
between  the  lowest  steps,  and  let  the  lower  seats  at 
the  ends  on  both  sides  be  cut  away  to  a  height  of 
that  dimension  so  as  to  leave  entrances  (O,P). 
At  the  point  where  this  cutting  away  occurs,  fix  the 
soffits  of  the  passages.  Thus  their  vaulting  will  be 
sufficiently  high. 

The  length  of  the  "scaena"  ought  to  be  double  the 
diameter  of  the  orchestra.  The  height  of  the 
podium,  starting  from  the  level  of  the  stage,  is, 
including  the  corona  and  cymatium,  one-twelfth  of 
the  diameter  of  the  orchestra.  Above  the  podium, 
the  columns,  including  their  capitals  and  bases, 
should  have  a  height  of  one-quarter  of  the  same 
diameter,  and  the  architraves  and  ornaments  of  the 
columns  should  be  one-fifth  of  their  height.  The 
parapet  above,  including  its  cyma  and  corona,  is  one- 
half  the  height  of  the  parapet  below.  Let  the 


EXTRACTS  FROM  VITRUVIUS       177 

columns  above  this  parapet  be  one-fourth  less  in 
height  than  the  columns  below,  and  the  architraves 
and  ornaments  of  these  columns  one-fifth  of  their 
height.  If  the  uscaena"  is  to  have  three  stories, 
let  the  uppermost  parapet  be  half  the  height  of  the 
intermediate  one,  the  columns  at  the  top  one-fourth 
less  high  than  the  intermediate,  and  the  architraves 
and  coronae  of  these  columns  one-fifth  of  their  height 
as  before. 

It  is  not  possible,  however,  that  in  all  theatres 
these  rules  of  symmetry  should  answer  all  condi- 
tions and  purposes,  but  the  architect  ought  to  con- 
sider to  what  extent  he  must  follow  the  principle  of 
symmetry,  and  to  what  extent  it  may  be  modified  to 
suit  the  nature  of  the  site  or  the  size  of  the  work. 
There  are,  of  course,  some  things  which,  for  utility's 
sake,  must  be  made  of  the  same  size  in  a  small  the- 
atre and  a  large  one :  such  as  the  steps,  curved  cross- 
aisles,  their  parapets,  the  passages,  stair-ways, 
stages,  tribunals,  and  any  other  things  which  occur 
that  make  it  necessary  to  give  up  symmetry  so  as 
not  to  interfere  with  utility.  Again,  if  in  the  course 
of  the  work  any  of  the  material  fall  short,  such  as 
marble,  timber,  or  anything  else  that  is  provided,  it 
will  not  be  amiss  to  make  a  slight  reduction  or  addi- 
tion, provided  that  it  is  done  without  going  too  far, 
but  with  intelligence.  This  will  be  possible,  if  the 


178         THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

architect  is  a  man  of  practical  experience  and,  be- 
sides, not  destitute  of  cleverness  and  skill. 

The  "scaena"  itself  displays  the  following  schema. 
In  the  centre  are  double  doors  decorated  like  those 
of  a  royal  palace.  At  the  right  and  left  are  the 
doors  of  the  guest  chambers.  Beyond  are  spaces 
provided  for  decoration — places  that  the  Greeks 
call  irepi&KToi,  because  in  these  places  are  tri- 
angular pieces  of  machinery  which  revolve,  each 
having  three  decorated  faces.  When  the  play  is  to 
be  changed,  or  when  gods  enter  to  the  accompani- 
ment of  sudden  claps  of  thunder,  these  may  be  re- 
volved and  present  a  face  differently  decorated. 
Beyond  these  places  are  the  projecting  wings  which 
afford  entrances  to  the  stage,  one  from  the  forum, 
the  other  from  abroad. 

There  are  three  kinds  of  scenes,  one  called  the 
tragic,  second,  the  comic,  third,  the  satyric.  Their 
decorations  are  different  and  unlike  each  other  in 
scheme.  Tragic  scenes  are  delineated  with  columns, 
pediments,  statues,  and  other  objects  suited  to  kings; 
comic  scenes  exhibit  private  dwellings,  with  balconies 
and  views  representing  rows  of  windows,  after  the 
manner  of  ordinary  dwellings;  satyric  scenes  are 
decorated  with  trees,  caverns,  mountains,  and  other 
rustic  objects  delineated  in  landscape  style. 


EXTRACTS  FROM  VITRUVIUS       179 

GREEK  THEATRES 

In  the  theatres  of  the  Greeks,  these  same  rules  of 
construction  are  not  to  be  followed  in  all  respects. 
First,  in  the  circle  at  the  bottom  where  the  Roman 
has  four  triangles,  the  Greek  has  three  squares  with 
their  angles  touching  the  line  of  circumference. 
The  square  whose  side  is  nearest  to  the  "scaena," 
and  cuts  off  a  segment  of  the  circle,  determines  by 
this  line  the  limits  of  the  "proscaenium"  (A-B). 
Parallel  to  this  line  and  tangent  to  the  outer  circum- 
ference of  the  segment,  a  line  is  drawn  which  fixes 
the  front  of  the  "scaena"  (C-D).  Through  the 
centre  of  the  orchestra  and  parallel  to  the  direction 
of  the  "proscaenium"  a  line  is  laid  off,  and  centres 
are  marked  where  it  cuts  the  circumference  to  the 
right  and  left  (E,F)  at  the  ends  of  the  half-circle. 
Then,  with  the  compasses  fixed  at  the  right,  an  arc 
is  described  from  the  horizontal  distance  at  the 
left  to  the  left  hand  side  of  the  "proscaenium" 
(F-G)  ;  again  with  the  centre  at  the  left  end,  an 
arc  is  described  from  the  horizontal  distance  at  the 
right  to  the  right  hand  side  of  the  "proscaenium" 
(E-H). 

As  a  result  of  this  plan  with  three  centres,  the 
Greeks  have  a  roomier  orchestra,  and  a  "scaena" 


THE  THEATRE  PORTICO 

ACCORDING      TO      VITRVVIV5 


Plan  of  the  Greek  Theatre  according  to  Vitruvius.  The  small  cir- 
cular diagrams  represent  two  actual  variations  from  the  theoret- 
ical type.  The  reference  "from  Durm"  is  to  Josef  Durm's  "Die 
Baukunst  der  Griechen," 

(By  courtesy  of  the  Harvard  University  Press.) 


EXTRACTS  FROM  VITRUVIUS       1 8 1 

set  further  back,  as  well  as  a  stage  of  less  depth. 
They  call  this  the  foyeiov,  for  the  reason  that 
there  the  tragic  and  comic  actors  perform  on  the 
stage,  while  other  artists  give  their  performances  in 
the  entire  orchestra;  hence,  from  this  fact  they  are 
given  in  Greek  the  distinct  names  "Scenic"  and 
"Thymelic."  The  height  of  this  "logeum"  ought 
to  be  not  less  than  ten  feet  nor  more  than  twelve. 
Let  the  ascending  flights  of  steps  between  the  wedges 
of  seats,  as  far  up  as  the  first  curved  cross-aisle, 
be  laid  out  on  lines  directly  opposite  to  the  angles  of 
the  square.  Above  the  cross-aisle,  let  other  flights 
be  laid  out  in  the  middle  between  the  first;  and  at 
the  top,  as  often  as  there  is  a  new  cross-aisle,  the 
number  of  flights  of  steps  is  always  increased  to  the 
same  extent. 

ACOUSTICS  OF  THE  SITE  OF  A  THEATRE 

All  this  having  been  settled  with  the  greatest 
pains  and  skill,  we  must  see  to  it,  with  still  greater 
care,  that  a  site  has  been  selected  where  the  voice 
has  a  gentle  fall,  and  is  not  driven  back  with  a  re- 
coil so  as  to  convey  an  indistinct  meaning  to  the  ear. 
There  are  some  places  which  from  their  very  nature 
interfere  with  the  course  of  the  voice,  as  for  instance 
the  dissonant,  which  are  termed  in  Greek 


182         THE  OPEN-AIR  THEATRE 

the  circumsonant,  which  with  them  are  named 
again  the  resonant,  which  are  termed 
and  the  consonant,  which  they  call 
The  dissonant  are  those  places  in 
which  the  first  sound  uttered  that  is  carried  up  high, 
strikes  against  solid  bodies  above,  and,  being  driven 
back,  checks  as  it  sinks  to  the  bottom  the  rise  of  the 
succeeding  sound. 

The  circumsonant  are  those  in  which  the  voice 
spreads  all  round,  and  then  is  forced  into  the  mid- 
dle, where  it  dissolves;  the  case-endings  are  not 
heard,  and  it  dies  away  there  in  sounds  of  indistinct 
meaning.  The  resonant  are  those  in  which  it  comes 
into  contact  with  some  solid  substance  and  recoils, 
thus  producing  an  echo,  and  making  the  termina- 
tions of  cases  sound  double.  The  consonant  are 
those  in  which  it  is  supported  from  below,  increases 
as  it  goes  up,  and  reaches  the  ears  in  words  which 
are  distinct  and  clear  in  tone.  Hence,  if  there  has 
been  careful  attention  in  the  selection  of  the  site, 
the  effect  of  the  voice  will,  through  this  precaution, 
be  perfectly  suited  to  the  purposes  of  a  theatre. 

The  drawings  of  the  plans  may  be  distinguished 
from  each  other  by  this  difference,  that  theatres  de- 
signed from  squares  are  meant  to  be  used  by  Greeks, 
while  Roman  theatres  are  designed  from  equilateral 


EXTRACTS  FROM  VITRUVIUS       1 83 

triangles.  Whoever  is  willing  to  follow  these  di- 
rections will  be  able  to  construct  perfectly  correct 
theatres. 


THE  END 


INDEX 


Acoustics,  148,  171,  179 

Acting,  125 

Adams,  Maude,  34 

^Eschylus,  22,  37 

Amman,  Roman  theatre  at,  25 

Amphitheatres,  28 

Anglin,  Margaret,  34,  115,  126 

Anoka  Open-air  Theatre,  43 

Arena  Goldoni,  43 

Aspendus,    Roman    theatre    at, 

24,  151 
Athens — See  Dionysus,  Theatre 

of 
Autun,  Religious  theatre  at,  52 

Baker,  George  Pierce,  79 
Bakersfield  Greek  Theatre,  39, 

149,  153 

Balbus,  Theatre  of,  25 
Bankside  Theatre,  83 
Bar  Harbor  Nature  Theatre,  78 
Barker,  Granville,  47 
Berkeley — See  Hearst  Greek 

Theatre 

Bernhardt,  Sarah,  29,  35 
Beziers  Arena  Theatre,  47 
Boboli    Gardens    Amphitheatre, 

96 
Bohemian  Grove  Theatre,  5,  71, 

119,  142,  160,  163 


Booth,  George  G.,  38 
Bothin,  Henry  E.,  99 
Bourges  Amphitheatre,  53 
Bradfield    Greek    Theatre,    46, 

141 

Brookside  Theatre,  101,  141,  148 
Bryn  Mawr  Open-air  Theatre, 

147 

Burrowes,  Marcus  R.,  39 
Butterick     Memorial     Theatre, 

146 


Castelnuovo  Garden  Theatre,  96 

Cauterets,  Nature  theatre  at, 
69 

Chicago — Garfleld  Park  Thea- 
tre, 42,  145 

Coburn  Players,  76,  128 

College  of  the  City  of  New 
York  Stadium,  48 

Community  Drama,  8,  116,  129 

Conklin,  Roland  R.,  105 

Construction,  135,  169 

Coquelin,  29 

Cornish  "rounds,"  56 

Cost  of  open-air  theatres,  165 

Craig,  Gordon,  46 

Cranbrook  Greek  Theatre,  38, 
145,  252 


185 


i86 


INDEX 


Dell  Theatre,  75 
DeVega,  Lope,  55 
Dickinson,  Thomas  H.,  80,  123 
Dionysus,  Festivals  of,   13 
Dionysus,  Theatre  of,  14,  161 
Dorpfeld,  Wilhelm,  17 
Drainage  systems,  164 
Duse,  Eleanora,  8 

Ekklesiasterion  at  Priene,  27 
Elizabethan  theatre,  4,  57 
Epidaurus  Greek  Theatre,  20 
Eretria  Greek  Theatre,  21 
Euripides,  22 
Experimental  theatre,  6 

Forest  Park  Theatre,  St.  Louis, 

42 

Forest  Theatre,  Carmel,  73,  119 
Fountain  Theatre  at  Versailles, 

97 

Garden  Terrace  Theatre,  103 
Garden  theatre  plays,  119 
Garden  theatres,  4,  11,  87,  153, 

168 

Garfield  Park  Theatre,  42,  145 
Garnett,  Porter,  73 
Goethe,  65,  97 

Goodman,  Kenneth  Sawyer,  42 
Gould,    Mrs.    Charles    Judson, 

107 
Graham,   Mrs.   William   Miller, 

107 

Greek  drama,  2,  13,  21 
Greek  theatre,  10,  13,  179 
Greek  theatres,  modern,  30,  167 
Greet,  Ben,  128 


Hagedorn,  Hermann,  76,  80 

Harvard  Stadium,  48 

Harz     Mountain    Theatre,    65, 

147 
Hearst  Greek  Theatre,  31,  41, 

115,  141,  145,  151,  161,  166 
Hertenstein     Nature     Theatre, 

67,  147 

Howard,  Sidney  Coe,  39 
Hubbard,  Henry  Vincent,  93 
Hume,  Sam,  39 

Italian  "arenas,"  49 

Italian  villa  theatres,  4,  89,  154 

Japanese  No-theatres,  63 

Kaufmann,  Oskar,  66 
Kirksville  Open-air  Theatre,  78 
Klampenborg    Woods    Theatre, 

70,  158 
Klopstock,  65 
Koch,  Frederick  H.,  83 

Laughton,  Marie  Ware,  75 
Leonard,  Martia,  101 
Lighting,  125,  162 
Littmann,  Max,  66 
Lorenz,  Rudolf,  67 
Los  Angeles  Greek  Theatre,  43, 
153 

MacDowell  Pageant,  7,  79 
Mackaye,  Percy,  76,  82,  129 
Macomb  Nature  Theatre,  77 
Madison  open-air  theatre,  80 
Maeterlinck,  121 


INDEX 


187 


Mannheim  treillage-work  thea- 
tre, 98,  142,  154 

Marcellus,  Theatre  of,  24,  25 

Medieval  religious  theatre,  11, 
51 

Megalopolis  Greek  Theatre,  21 

Meriden  nature  theatre,  5,  76, 
119 

Miracle  Plays,  3,  52 

Mistral,  Fr6de>ic,  28 

Montecito,  Garden  theatres  at, 
99,  107 

Mt.  Tamalpais  Theatre,  83 

Mystery  Plays,  3,  51 

Nature    theatres,    11,    64,    157, 

167 
Normal  Open-air  Theatre,  77 

Ober-Ammergau  Passion  Thea- 
tre, 59 
Odeons,  26 

Olmsted  Brothers,  147 
Open-air  drama,  7,  80,  109 
Orange,   Roman   theatre   at,   5, 

24,  28,  151 

Oropus,  Greek  theatre  at,  20 
Outdoor  Players'   Theatre,  Pe- 
terborough, 74 

Pageant  cars,  54 

Pageants,  116 

Pageant   theatres,  41,    79,    117, 

167 

Panathenaic  Stadion,  28 
Pausilypon,  Odeon  at,  27,  89 
Peterborough  Pageant  Theatre, 

5,  79 


Peterborough — See  Outdoor 

Players'  Theatre 
Planning  open-air  theatres,  135 
Platt,  Livingston,  75 
Point  Loma  Greek  Theatre,  36, 

139,  152 

Pomona  Greek  Theatre,  41 
Pompeii,  Roman  theatre  at,  32 
Pompey's  Theatre,  Rome,  25 
Potsdam  Nature  Theatre,  69 
Priene,  Theatre  at,  20 
Priene,  Ekklesiasterion  at,  27 

Ragdale    Ring,    100,    142,    148, 

163 

Real,  Antony,  28 
Reinhardt,  Max,  115 
Religious  drama,  3,  51 
Rheinsberg,  Garden  theatre  at, 

97 

Ripert,  Felix,  28 
Roman  drama,  26 
Roman  theatres,  23,  173 
Rosemary  Theatre,  105 
Rosse,  Hermann,  164 

St.  Louis— Forest  Park  Thea- 
tre, 42 

St.  Louis  Pageant  Theatre,  82* 
Scenery,  22,  122 
Seating  capacities,  17,  25 
Selzach  Passion  Play,  62 
Shakespeare,  57,  115,  120 
Shaw,  Howard,  100 
Site,  135,  169 

Smith,  Joseph  Lindon,  42 
Sophocles,  22,  34,  115 
Stadions,  28 


i88 


INDEX 


Stage  buildings,  17,  150 
Stevens,  Thomas  Wood,  42, 
Swan  Theatre,  58 

Tacoma  Stadion,  48 


Villa   Marlia   Garden    Theatre, 

93,  155,  156 
Villa  of  Hadrian,  89 
Villa  Sergardi  Garden  Theatre, 

93,  156 


Tarrytown,    Greek    theatre    at,      Villa    Serraglio   Garden    Thea- 


107 


tre,  95,  156 


Theatre   of   Hercules,  at  Isola'      Vitruvius,  19,  24,  149,  169 

Bella,  96 

Tiefurt  Water  Theatre,  85 
Tingley,  Katherine,  36,  37 
Treillage-work  theatres,  98,  154 
Triggs,  H.  Inigo,  99 


Wachler,  Ernst,  65 
Warsaw  Park  Theatre,  104 
Water  theatres,  85 
Wellesley  College  "Tree  Day," 

85 
Westerwyck,    Treillage-work 

theatre  at,  99 
Wharton,  Edith,  91 


Valenciennes  Passion  Play,  54 

Vassar    College    Nature    Thea- 
tre, 75,  160 

Villa  Collodi   Garden  Theatre, 
92,  155 

Villa  Gori  Garden  Theatre,  91,      Yale  Bowl,  48 
155,  156  Yeats,  W.  B.,  74 


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